# Verb-initial grammars: A multilingual/parallel perspective
# ESRC Project RES-000-23-0505
# Oxford University
# Charles Randriamasimanana


# Malagasy syntax/semantics: 
# Nominals in Malagasy - ESRC-OX-06-CR210.


# Malagasy Nominals.testfile.
# Malagasy presents two different types of nominalization: Stative Nominals typically involving 
# Roots & GEN(itive) case and Action Nominals typically involving Stems & OBLIQUE-agent case. 
# Of crucial importance will be the distinction between clitic NA 'of' followed by a GEN and 
# attached to a Root as contrasted with Passive.2 suffix ANA followed by an OBLag and in the
# case of a transitive verb by an OBJECT. It is significant to note that Malagasy has a set
# of Stative Intransitive predicates, which do not allow passivization at all. For details,
# consult Part Two, Section One: Stative Nominals with prefix F. 


# This document is organized into two parts:

# Part One first explores simple and less simple noun constructions involving in particular adjectives
# and genitives before going into relative clause structures; more complex constructions related to
# gerunds are then described in some detail in relation to grammatical functions such as OBLagent or
# OBJECT; subsequently Derived Nouns typically involving amalgamation are compared with Action Nominals
# and some detailed background information is provided; towards the end of Part One, two general
# correlations will be drawn, i.e. the first, a correlation between Root and GENitive corresponding 
# to Stative Nominal, and the second between Stem and OBLIQUE-agent corresponding to Action Nominal.

# Part Two describes two types of Nominalization in Malagasy: Stative nominals involving a Root followed
# by clitic NA 'of' and a genitive (GEN) & Action nominals involving a Stem followed by passive suffix 
# ANA 'by' and an OBLIQUE-agent (OBLag). Section One deals with Stative Nominals which take prefix F,
# providing in the process a finite set of remarkable Stative Nominals where F-Nominalization designates 
# an instrument. Section Two introduces Stative Nominals with prefix HA, which is contrasted with
# Action Nominals comprising a Default prefix AHA. Section Three finally explores the Distribution of 
# OBLag, OBLgen & GEN in relation to a Nouniness Continuum.


# Part One:

# Simple and relatively simple Noun constructions
# We will consider simple and relatively simple Noun constructions, which are not derived from verbs
# although Derived Nouns will be described towards the end of Part One after consideration of GERUNDS,
# Cases such as OBLag and GEN, Amalgamation, Stative Nominals and Action Nominals.


# Simple Malagasy NPs

# NounAdj and NounAdj + NA
# In Malagasy an Adjective immediately follows the Noun it qualifies. This may give rise to a number of
# adjustments depending on the ending of the Noun or sometimes on the number of syllables it has.

# Nouns which do not end in { ka, tra, na }
  ny olona antitra
# the people old
# the old people/old people

  ny akanjo lena
# ny  akanjo  lena
# the clothes wet
# the wet clothes

# Nouns which end in { ka, tra, na } & which have LESS than 3 syllables
# Nouns with MORE than 3 syllables
  ny andraikitra lehibe
# ny  andraikitra    lehibe
# the responsibility big
# the big responsibility

# Nouns with LESS than 3 syllables MAY have an alternative form
# especially high frequency Nouns, i.e. possibly a finite set

# Ungrammatical:
  ny resaka be	  
# ny  resaka be
# the talk   big
# the big conversation

# Grammatical:
  ny resabe
# ny resa(ka)-be
# the talk-big
# the big news

  ny setroka be
# ny setroka be
# the smoke big
# the big smoke

# Ungrammatical
  ny setro-be
# the smoke big

# BUT
  ny zavatra tsara
# ny zavatra tsara
# the thing  good
# the good thing(s)

# also possible
  ny zava-tsara
# ny  zava(tra)-tsara
# the thing-    good
# the good thing(s)

  ny olona ratsy
# ny  olona  ratsy
# the people evil
# the evil people

# also possible
  ny olon-dratsy
# ny  olon(a)-  d-   ratsy
# the people.of-ep.d-evil
# the evil people

  ny olona tsara
# ny  olona  tsara
# the people good
# the good people

# also possible
  ny olon-tsara
# ny  olon(a)-  tsara
# the people.of-good
# the good people

# Adj with less than 3 syllables vs Adj with more than 3 syllables:
# When the Adjective accompanying a Noun is 'short', it always immediately follows
# the Noun although when the Adjective has more than three syllables, it may follow
# an intervening GENitive providing it is preceded by a pause, as illustrated below.

  ny andro ratsy
# the day   bad
# the foul weather/foul weather

  ny toetra ratsy	  
# the nature evil
# the evil nature

  ny toetra ratsin'i Paoly
# ny  toetra ratsi-N(A)'i    Paoly
# the nature bad-NA.of  D.sg Paul
# Paul's evil nature
# where clitic NA 'of' is attached to the ADJ root ratsy 'bad'
# of the complex NP toetra ratsy 'nature evil'.

  ny solontena maharitr'i Madagasikara
# ny  solontena      maharitra/NA' i    Madagasikara
# the representative permanent.OF  D.sg Madagascar
# the permanent representative of Madagascar
# where the clitic NA 'of' is attached to the ADJ maharitra 'permanent'
# but since the latter ends in 'tra' making it a weak syllable, the final
# 'a' drops replaced by the sign '. 

  ny solontenan'i Madagasikara maharitra
# ny  solonte<na>/N(A)' i    Madagasikara // maharitra
# the representative/of D.sg Madagascar   // permanent
# the permanent representative of Madagascar
# where // = a pause and < ... > represents an extrasyllabic element;
# note that his time the clitic NA 'of' is attached to the Noun
# solontena 'representative'.

  ny zanaka vavy 
# the child  female
# the daughter/a daughter

  ny zanaka vavin'ny dokotera
# ny  zanaka vavi-N(A)'ny  dokotera
# the child  female-of the doctor
# the doctor's daughter

  ny zanaka lahy
# the child  male
# the son/a son

  ny zanaka lahin'ny dokotera
# ny  zanaka lahi-NA 'ny dokotera
# the child  male-of  the doctor
# the doctor's son

  ny zanaka lahimatoan'i Jeanne
# ny zanaka lahi-matoa-N(A)'i    Jeanne
# the child male oldest-of  D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's eldest son

# also possible with a pause
  ny zanak'i Jeanne lahimatoa
# ny zanak'    i    Jeanne // lahi-matoa
# the child.of D.sg Jeanne // male oldest
# Jeanne's eldest son

  ny zanaka vavimatoan'i Jeanne
# ny zanaka vavi-matoa-N(A)' i    Jeanne
# the child female oldest-of D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's eldest daughter

# also possible with a pause
  ny zanak'i Jeanne vavimatoa
# ny zanak'    i    Jeanne // vavi-matoa
# the child.of D.sg Jeanne // female-oldest
# Jeanne's eldest daughter

  ny varavarankely
# ny  varavarana kely
# the opening    small
# the window/a window

  ny varavarankelin'ny dokotera
# ny  varavaran(a)keli-NA'ny  dokotera
# the opening.small-of    the doctor
# the doctor's window

  ny varavarambe
# ny  varavanana be
# the opening    big
# the door/a door

  ny varavaramben'ny dokotera
# ny  varavaran(a)be-NA'ny  dokotera
# the opening.big-of    the doctor
# the doctor's door

# Nouns combining with a Genitive with clitic NA 'of':
  ny fetin'ny maty
# ny  feti n' ny maty
# the feti NA ny maty
# the festivity of the dead
# All Saints' Day

  ny fetim-pirenena
# ny  feti       m  pirenena
# the feti       NA firenena
# the festivity  of nation
# National Day

  ny seranampiaramanidina
# ny  serana   m  piara manidina
# the seranana NA fiara   manidina
# the haven    of vehicle fly
# the airport

  ny seranan-tsambo
# ny  seran<ana> NA ep.t sambo
# the haven      of      ship
# the haven of ship, seaport
# where t is epenthetic in front of s.

  ny trondron-dranomamy
# ny trondro     n- d    rano  mamy
# the fish       NA ep.d water nonsalt
# the fish of nonsalt water
# where d is epenthetic in front of r.

  ny trondron-dranomasina
# ny trondro  n- d     rano  masina
# the fish    NA ep.d  water salt
# the fish of salt water
# where d is epenthetic in front of r.

  ny ranom-boakazo
# ny  rano   m  boakazo
# the water  NA voakazo
# the juice  of fruit
# the fruit juice
# where clitic NA 'of' undergoes homorganic nasal assimilation to b.

  ny ranom-boasary
# ny  rano  m- boasary
# the water NA voasary
# the juice of orange
# the orange juice

# Consideration of Nouns ending in { ka, tra, na }

# iraka 'envoy_or_messenger'
  ny iraky ny mpampianatra
# ny  irak(a.NA>)y  ny  mpampianatra
# the messenger-of  the teacher(s)
# the teacher's messenger
# Note that the 'a' of the ka ending mutates to 'y' under the
# influence of the following determiner ny 'the'.

  ny iraka mpampianatra iray
# ny  iraka        mpampianatra iray
# the messenger-of teacher(s)   one
# one teacher's messenger
# Note the nondefinite GENitive following the Noun iraka 'envoy'
# from which the clitic NA 'of' appears to be missing.

  ny irak'i Jeanne
# ny  irak(a.NA)   i    Jeanne
# the messenger-of D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's messenger

# peratra 'ring_worn_on_finger'
  ny peratry ny mpampianatra
# ny  peratr(a.NA>)y ny  mpampianatra
# the ring-of        the teacher(s)
# the teacher's ring

  ny peratra mpampianatra iray
# ny peratra  mpampianatra iray
# the ring-of teacher(s)   one
# one teacher's ring
# Note the nondefinite GENitive following the Noun peratra 'ring'
# from which the clitic NA 'of' appears to be missing.

  ny peratr'i Jeanne
# ny  peratr(a.NA>) i    Jeanne
# the ring-of       D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's ring

# lavarangana 'balcony'
  ny lavarangan'ny mpampianatra
# ny lavarangan(a.NA)'ny mpampianatra
# the balcony-of      the teacher
# the teacher's balcony

  ny lavarangan'i Jeanne
# ny lavaranga<na>/N(A)'i    Jeanne
# the balcony-of        D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's balcony

  ny lavarangana mpampianatra iray
# ny lavarangana mpampianatra iray
# the balcony-of teacher      one
# one teacher's balcony
# Note the nondefinite GENitive following the Noun lavarangana 'balcony'
# from which the clitic NA 'of' appears to be missing.


# Relatively complex nominals:
# Nouns involving particle aman(a) 'SIMULTANEOUS.and' 

  ny raiamandreny
# ny  ray    aman(a)   d-           reny
# the father simul.AND epenthetic.d-mother
# the parents/parents

  ny raiamandrenin'i Jeanne
# ny  ray    aman(a)   d-           reni-  NA'i Jeanne
# the father simul.AND epenthetic.d-mother of D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's parents

  ny vady aman-janak' i Jeanne
# ny  vady   aman-     zanak(a)'      i    Jeanne
# the spouse SIMUL.and child(ren)-of  D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's husband and child(ren)
# Jeanne's household

  ny namana aman-tsakaiza
# ny  namana   aman-     t-    sakaiza
# the comrades SIMUL.and ep.t- friends
# the comrades and friends
# the friends (of someone/presumably the speaker)/friends

  ny namana aman-tsakaizan'i Jeanne
# ny  namana   aman-     t-    sakaiza-NA'i    Jeanne
# the comrades SIMUL.and ep.t- friends-of D.sg Jeanne
# the comrades and friends of Jeanne
# Jeanne's friends

  ny zaza amam-behivavy
# ny  zaza  aman(a)   vehivavy
# the child simul.AND woman
# the women and children/women and children

  ny variaminanan'i Jeanne
# ny  vari amin(a) ana<na>-   NA(a)'i    Jeanne
# the rice with    vegetables-of    D.sg Jeanne
# Jeanne's dish (rice cooked with different kinds of vegetables)


# Nominals involving a relative clause NRel
  ny fanafody kibo
# ny  fanafody (ho    an'    ny)  kibo
# the medecine (which is.for the) belly
# the medecine belly
# the medecine for stomach ache

  ny fanafody kohaka
# ny  fanafody (ho     an'    ny) kohaka
# the medecine (which  is.for the) cough
# the medecine cough
# the cough medecine


# Noun Compound SUBJ V with no Comp izay (with no linker at all in-between):
  ny fiaramanidina
# ny  fiara   (izay)  manidina
# the vehicle (which) fly
# the plane/planes

  ny fiarakodia
# ny  fiara   (izay)  (mi)kodia
# the vehicle (which) (prf)roll over/run
# the car/car


# Nouns Headless Relative Clause, i.e. V OBJ compounds.
# This represents a finite set since in general there is in Malagasy a very productive process 
# involving an AGENT nominalizer prefix MP referring to an AGENT.

  ny manamboninahitra  
# ny  m-   ana(n>)m- (v>)boninahitra
# the pres-Root.have nonours
# the (ones) who have honurs
# officer_of_palace_or_of_armed_forces
# manana 'to have', voninahitra 'honours'
# where the nondefinite object voninahitra 'honours' has been incorporated into the verb
# mana<na> 'to have', triggering mutation of <n(a)> of manana to m and v of voninahitra
# to b;

  ny manampahefana 
# ny         m-   ana(n>)-m-pahefana
# the (ones) pres-have-     authority
# the authorities
# fahefana 'authority'
# where the nondefinite object fahefana 'authority' has been incorporated into the verb
# mana<na> 'to have', triggering mutation of <n(a)> of manana to m and f of fahefana
# to p;


# The following pattern involving nominalizer AGENT prefix MP is a very productive pattern:

  ny mpampianatra 
# ny  mp-       amp-i-      anatra 
# the prefix.MP-amp-ActiveI-Root.anatra
# the ones-who-cause-to-learn
# the teacher(s)

  ny mpianatra
# ny  mp-       i-      anatra
# the prefix.MP-ActiveI-Root.anatra
# the ones-who-learn
# the student(s)


# Constructions involving Root HeadNoun & OBJ:
# Many root nouns like doro 'burning', which normally require a verbal prefix, i.e. ActiveAN or 
# Active I in order to be able to be used in a sentence can form part of a complex NP comprising
# for instance a HeadNoun followed by an OBJECT, as imediately illustrated below.

  ny doro tanety
# ny  doro       tanety
# the HeadNoun   OBJ
# the burning.of hillside(s)
# Root doro N 'burning'

  ny tahotra alika
# ny  tahotra  alika
# the HeadNoun OBJ
# the fear.of  dog(s)
# the fear one has of dogs
# Root tahotra N 'fear'

# Ungrammatical:
  ny tahotr'alika
# ny  tahotr(a) alika
# the HeadNoun OBJ
# the fear	dog(s)
# the fear dogs inspire


# Constructions involving Root HeadNoun & GEN:
# Some root nouns like tahotra 'fright', which here takes the unusual verbal prefix A instead of
# the usual ActiveAN or Active I in order to be able to be used in a sentence can form part of 
# a complex NP comprising for instance a HeadNoun followed by a GEN, as imediately illustrated below.

  ny tahotr'alika
# ny  tahotr(a).cliticNA' alika
# the fear	   of     GEN
# the fear dogs have

# Ungrammatical:
  ny tahotra alika
# ny  tahotra  alika
# the HeadNoun GEN
# the fear	dog(s)
# the fear dogs have


# Relative Clause construction involving DP, Root HeadNoun & Adj:

# Grammatical sequence:
  ny hevitra adala
# ny  hevitra adala
# the idea(s) foolish
# the idea(s) (which are) foolish

# Ungrammatical sequence:
  ny hevitr' adala
# ny  hevitra.NA adala
# the idea(s).of foolish
# the idea(s)  (which are) foolish


# Construction involving Root HeadNoun + GEN:

# Grammatical sequence:
  ny hevitr'adala
# ny  hevitr(a).NA adala
# the idea(s).of   foolish
# the idea(s) of a fool

# Ungrammatical sequence:
  ny hevitra adala
# ny  hevitra.NA adala
# the idea(s).of foolish
# the idea(s) of a fool


# Some background information involving relative clauses (NRel):
# The relevant HeadNoun is followed by a relative clause; the HeadNoun
# may be separated from the relative clause by a complementizer izay 'so that'.

# NRel comprising a HeadNoun with optional Comp izay 'so that'.
# An OBJECT is 'promoted' to SUBJECT: Direct Object > SUBJ
# without Comp izay 'so that':

  ny rano sotroin'i Jeanne
# ny rano zero-sotro-     in(a)'   i Jeanne
# HeadN        Stem.sotro-suff.INA OBLag
# the water which is being drunk by Jeanne

# with Comp izay:
  ny rano izay sotroin'i Jeanne
# ny rano izay zero-sotro-     in(a)'   i Jeanne
# HeadN   Comp      Stem.sotro-suff.INA OBLag
# the water which is being drunk by Jeanne


# An Indirect Object is 'promoted' to SUBJ: IO > SUBJ
# without Comp izay 'so that':
  ny baolina dakan'i Paoly
# ny baolina zero-daka-     (a)n(a)' i Paoly
# HeadN           Stem.daka-suff.ANA OBLag
# the ball which is being kicked by Paul

# with Comp izay 'so that':
  ny baolina izay dakan'i Paoly
# ny baolina izay zero-daka-     (a)n(a)' i Paoly
# HeadN      Comp      Stem.daka-suff.ANA OBLag
# the ball which is being kicked by Pau


# An Oblique argument is 'advanced' to SUBJECT: OBL > SUBJ
# Verb stem surrounded by I ... ANA without Comp izay 'so that':
  ny seza ipetrahan'i Jeanne
# ny  seza  zero-i-petrah-     an(a)' i Jeanne
# HeadN          I-Stem.petrah-Pass.2 OBLag
# the chair on which Jeanne is sitting

# Verb stem surrounded by I ... ANA with Comp izay 'so that':
  ny seza izay ipetrahan'i Jeanne
# ny  seza  izay zero-i-petrah-     an(a)' i Jeanne
# HeadN     Comp      I-Stem.petrah-Pass.2 OBLag
# the chair on which Jeanne is sitting

# Verb stem surrounded by AN ... ANA without Comp izay 'so that':
  ny fiara nandehanan'i Jeanne
# ny  fiara n-   an-(l>)dehan- an(a)' i Jeanne
# the car   past-AN-Stem.dehan-Pass.2 OBLag
# the car in which Jeanne was travelling

# Verb stem surrounded by AN ... ANA with Comp izay:
  ny fiara izay nandehanan'i Jeanne
# ny  fiara izay n-   an-(l>)dehan- an(a)' i Jeanne
# the car   Comp past-AN-Stem.dehan-Pass.2 OBLag
# the car in which Jeanne was travelling


# Compound N.1 N.2 (with no linker at all in-between):
# Note that there is nothing between the two relevant Nouns.

# Simple cases:
  ny trano vato
# ny  trano vato
# the house stone
# the stone house

  ny trano hazo
# ny  trano hazo
# the house wood
# the wooden house

# Simple cases involving GEN:
# Note that clitic NA 'of' is attached to N.2 of the compound.
  ny trano vaton'i Jeanne
# ny  trano vato-n'  i    Jeanne
# the house stone.NA D.sg Jeanne
# the stone house of Jeanne

  ny trano hazon'i Jeanne
# ny  trano hazo-n' i    Jeanne
# the house wood.NA D.sg Jeanne
# the wooden house of Jeanne
 

# Complex cases:
# The following section is intended to introduce and describe the structure that can 
# accompany a HeadNoun, whether it is a GERUND, an Action Nominal, a Stative Nominal or
# indeed a Derived Noun.

  ny efitra fandroana
# ny  efitra f-          (AN) -    andro-suff.ANA
# the room   nominalizer-(pref.AN)-bathe-   Pass.2
# the room   where-is-usually-bathed
# the bathroom
# Note the absence of an OBLag under nominalization.
# Note haplology affecting prefix AN.
# Root andro [ stress on 'an']'bathe', stem andro [stress on 'ndro']'let (something) be bathed in'.


# Background information on Malagasy GERUNDS:
  ny efitra androan'i Jeanne
# ny  efitra zero-    (AN) -   andro-suff.ANA  i Jeanne
# the room   zero.asp-(pref.AN)-bathe-  Pass.2  OBLag
# the room   where-Jeanne-is-being-bathed
# the room where Jeanne is having a bath
# Note the OBLag = obligatory

  ny efitra nandroan'i Jeanne
# ny  efitra n-   (AN) -   andro-suff.ANA  i Jeanne
# the room   past-(pref.AN)-bathe-  Pass.2 OBLag
# the room   where-Jeanne-was-being-bathed
# the room where Jeanne was having a bath

  ny efitra handroan' i Jeanne
# ny  efitra h-  (AN) -   andro-suff.ANA  i Jeanne
# the room   fut-(pref.AN)-bathe-  Pass.2 OBLag
# the room   where-Jeanne-will-be-bathing
# the room where Jeanne will have a bath

  ny efitra fihinanana
# ny efitra f-          I-       hinan-        suff.ANA
# the room  nominalizer-prefix.I-Stem.hinan-   Pass.2
# the room where is-eaten
# the dining room
# Note the absence of OBLag & OBJ under nominalization on this transitive verb.
# Root hinana 'eat', stem hinan 'let (something) be eaten with'.


# Background on GERUNDs, OBLag & OBJ of a transitive verb:
# GERUNDS involving a Transitive verb:
  ny efitra ihinanan'i Jeanne sakafo
# ny  efitra zero.asp-I-       hinan-      suff.ANA i Jeanne sakafo
# the room   zero.asp-prefix.I-Stem.hinan- Pass.2   D.sg J    food
#             GERUND                                OBLag     OBJ
# OBJ = obligatory, whereas OBLag = optional
# the room where food is-being-eaten by Jeanne

  ny efitra nihinanan'i Jeanne sakafo
# ny  efitra n-   I-       hinan-        suff.ANA i Jeanne sakafo
# the room   past-prefix.I-Stem.hinan-   Pass.2   D.sg J   food
#             GERUND                              OBLag     OBJ
# OBJ = obligatory, whereas OBLag = optional
# the room where food was-being-eaten-by-Jeanne

  ny efitra hihinanan'i Jeanne sakafo
# ny  efitra h-  I-       hinan-        suff.ANA i Jeanne sakafo
# the room   fut-prefix.I-Stem.hinan-   Pass.2   D.sg     food
#             GERUND                             OBLag     OBJ
# OBJ = obligatory, whereas OBLag = optional
# the room where food will-be-eaten
# the room where food will be eaten

# GERUNDS involving an Intransitive verb:
  ny efitra fisakafoanana
# ny  efitra f-          I-       sakafoan-     suff.ANA
# the room   nominalizer-prefix.I-Stem.sakafoan-suff.ANA
# the room where-is-usually-eaten
# Note the absence of OBLag under nominalization
# the dining-room
# Note: Root sakafo 'meal', stem sakafoan 'let (something) be eaten in'.


# Background information on Malagasy GERUNDS:
  ny efitra isakafoanan'i Jeanne
# ny  efitra zero.asp-I-       sakafoan-     suff.ANA i Jeanne
# the room   zero.asp-prefix.I-Stem.sakafoan-suff.ANA OBLag
# the room where-Jeanne-is-eating
# Note that ANA is obligatory, whereas OBLag = optional 
# when the set being referred to necessarily includes the speaker;
# The room where Jeanne is eating.

  ny efitra nisakafoanan'i Jeanne
# ny  efitra n-   I-       sakafoan-     suff.ANA i Jeanne
# the room   past-prefix.I-Stem.sakafoan-suff.ANA OBLag
# the room where-Jeanne-was-eating
# The room where Jeanne was eating.

  ny efitra hisakafoanan'i Jeanne
# ny  efitra h-   I-      sakafoan-     suff.ANA i Jeanne
# the room   fut-prefix.I-Stem.sakafoan-suff.ANA OBLag
# the room where-Jeanne-will-be-eating
# The room where Jeanne will be eating.


# Amalgamation, Derived Nouns vs Action Nominals (with OBLag & non-incorporated Object NP of gerund)
  ny fivarotam-panafody
# ny  f-          i-varot-     an(a)/NA-     fanafody
# the nominalizer I Stem.varot suff.ANA/GEN  medicine
# Derived Noun                 amalgamation
# The label 'Derived Noun' will be used to designate a Stative Nominal involving amalgamation of
# the Passive.2 suffix ANA usually introducing an OBLag with the clitic.NA 'of' typically introducing
# a GENitive; in general this set of nominals represent items which tend towards the nouny end of a
# continuum; however we will still be using the expression 'Stative Nominal' for less nouny items;
# the where medecine is usually sold
# the pharmacy
# Note: Root varotra 'trade', stem varot 'let (something) be traded', fanafody 'medecine'.

# as opposed to the following

  ny fivarotana fanafody
# ny  f-          i-varot-ana           fanafody
# the HABITUALasp-I-Stem.varot-suff.ANA medecine
#     GERUND                            OBJ
# the (HABITUAL/ø action/manner of) selling medecine

# Additional genitive added to Derived Noun
  ny fivarotam-panafodin'i Jeanne
# ny  f-          i-varot-     an(a)/NA-     fanafodi NA     i    Jeanne
# the nominalizer I Stem.varot suff.ANA/GEN  medicine of.GEN D.sg J
# Derived Noun                 amalgamation
# Jeanne's pharmacy

# Additional OBLag added to verbal Stem
  ny fivarotan'i Jeanne fanafody
# ny  f-          i-varot-an(a)         i Jeanne fanafody
# the HABITUALasp-I-Stem.varot-suff.ANA D.sg J   medecine
#     Action Nominal                    OBLag    OBJ
# the (HABITUAL/ø action/manner of) selling of medecine by Jeanne

  ny fivarotam-boky
# ny  f-          i-varot-      an(a)/NA-     boky
# the nominalizer-I-Stem.varot- suff.ANA/GEN- boky
# Derived Noun                  amalgamation			
# the where books are usually sold
# the bookstore

# Additional genitive added to Derived Noun
  ny fivarotam-bokin'i Jeanne
# ny  f-          i-varot-     an(a)/NA-     boki NA     i    Jeanne
# the nominalizer I Stem.varot suff.ANA/GEN  book of.GEN D.sg J
# Derived Noun                 amalgamation
# Jeanne's bookstore

  ny fivarotana boky
# ny  f-          i-varot-      an(a)/NA-    boky
# the HABITUALasp-I-Stem.varot- suff.ANA/GEN boky
#     GERUND                                 OBJ
# the (HABITUAL/ø action/manner of) selling of books

# Additional OBLag added to verbal Stem
  ny fivarotan'i Jeanne boky
# ny  f-          i-varot-an(a)         i Jeanne boky
# the HABITUALasp-I-Stem.varot-suff.ANA D.sg J   book
#     Action Nominal                    OBLag    OBJ
# the (HABITUAL/ø action/manner of) selling of books by Jeanne


# Background information on Malagasy GERUND, Stative Nominals and clitic NA + GEN 
# as opposed to Action Nominals and passive suffix ANA + OBLag:

  ny ivarotan'i Jeanne boky
# ny  zero-   i-varot-      ana       i Jeanne boky
# the ZEROasp-I-Stem.varot- suff.ANA- D.sg J   boky
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal           OBLag    OBJ
# Jeanne's ongoing action of selling books

  ny nivarotan'i Jeanne boky
# ny  n-   i-varot-      ana       i Jeanne boky
# the past-I-Stem.varot- suff.ANA- D.sg J   boky
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal        OBLag    OBJ
# Jeanne's past action of selling books

  ny hivarotan'i Jeanne boky
# ny  h-  i-varot-      ana       i Jeanne boky
# the fut-I-Stem.varot- suff.ANA- D.sg J   boky
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal       OBLag    OBJ
# Jeanne's future action of selling books

  ny fiposaky ny masoandro
# ny  f-          i-   posak(a>)y     ny  maso-andro
# the nominalizer-I-   Root.posaka.NA the eye-of-sun
# Det STATIVE nominal  Root           GENITIVE 
# the (HABITUAL manner) of sunrise
# The form 'fiposak(a) involving Root.posaka is a STATIVE nominal.
# Note: Root posaka 'revelation', stem posah 'let (something) be revealed'.

# as opposed to the following

  ny fiposahan'ny masoandro
# ny  f           i         posah      an'      ny  maso-andro
# the f-          I-        posah-     suff.ANA the eye-of-day
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal Stem		OBLag
# the HABITUALasp-pref.I-Stem.posah-suff.ANA
# The form 'fiposahan(a) involving Stem.posah is an Action nominal;
# the (action of) sunrise


# Background information on Action Nominals (generally involving Stems):

  ny iposahan'ny masoandro
# ny       i      posah      an'      ny  maso-andro
# the zero-I-     posah-     suff.ANA the eye-of-day
# the zero-pref.I-Stem.posah-suff.ANA
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal with Stem OBLag
# Note that OBLag 'ny masoandro''the sun' is obligatory after suffix ANA;
# the ongoing-rising of the sun
# the ongoing sunrise

  ny niposahan'ny masoandro
# ny  n-    i      posah      an'      ny  maso-andro
# the past -I-     posah-     suff.ANA the eye-of-day
# the past- pref.I-Stem.posah-suff.ANA
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal with Stem  OBLag
# Note that OBLag 'ny masoandro''the sun' is obligatory after suffix ANA;
# the past-rising of the sun
# the past sunrise

  ny hiposahan'ny masoandro
# ny  h-   i      posah      an'      ny  maso-andro
# the fut -I-     posah-     suff.ANA the eye-of-day
# the fut- pref.I-Stem.posah-suff.ANA
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal with Stem OBLag
# Note that OBLag 'ny masoandro''the sun' is obligatory after suffix ANA;
# the future rising of the sun
# the future sunrise

  ny fodian'ny masoandro
# ny  f-          odi-     an'        ny  maso   andro
# the HABITUALasp-Stem.odi-suff.ANA   the eye-of-day
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal with Stem OBLag
# the habitual setting of the sun
# the sunset/sunset
# Note: The verb form mody 'to go back home, to return' does not comprise ActiveAN or ActiveI prefix;
# this is rather exceptional in view of the fact described in Subsection Three towards the end of Part
# Two below. Root odi [stress on 'o']'return', stem odi [stress on 'di']'let (something) be returned to'.


# Background information on Malagasy GERUNDS:
  ny odian'ny masoandro
# ny  zero-   odi-     an'             ny  maso   andro
# the ZEROasp-Stem.odi-suff.ANA        the eye-of-day
# the GERUND/Action Nominal with Stem	OBLag
# the ongoing setting of the sun
# the ongoing sunset

  ny nodian'ny masoandro
# ny  n-   odi-     an'               ny  maso   andro
# the past-Stem.odi-suff.ANA          the eye-of-day
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal with Stem OBLag
# the past setting of the sun
# the past sunset

  ny hodian'ny masoandro
# ny  h-  odi-     an'                 ny  maso   andro
# the fut-Stem.odi-suff.ANA            the eye-of-day
# Det GERUND/Action Nominal with Stem  OBLag
# the future setting of the sun
# the future sunset


# Typical Distribution of OBLag & Gen:
# The following is intended to illustrate the general correlation between Root and GENitive
# corresponding to Stative Nominal, on the one hand and that between Stem and OBLIQUE-agent
# corresponding to Action Nominal on the other, a 'Derived Noun' being the most nouny instance
# on the nouniness continuum and leaning towards the Root + GEN end of the spectrum.

# Option.1: typically Derived Noun with Root & GEN = STATIVE nominal
# Option.2 = typically GERUND with Stem & OBJ/OBLag = Action Nominal
# Option.3 = Derived Noun & GEN.

# Only Option 1 is possible with Root petraka 'deposit, appearance', 
# mipetraka intransitive 'to arise', putative stem petrah 'let (something) be arisen'.

# Option.1 = Grammatical, a STATIVE nominal involving Root & GEN
  Ny fipetraky ny raharaha
# Ny  f-          i-      petrak(a>)y     ny  raharaha
# Det HABITUALasp-ActiveI-Root.petraka.NA the thing
#      STATIVE nominal                    GEN
# the way the thing shows up/arises
# Root petraka 'deposit', mipetraka 'to arise, to appear'; 
# NO corresponding stem petrah for the meaning 'to arise';

# Option.2 = Ungrammatical,  Action nominal involving Stem & OBLag 
# Ungrammatical:
  Ny fipetrahan'ny raharaha
# Ny  f-          i-      petrah-     an(a)'   ny raharaha
# Det HABITUALasp-ActiveI-Stem.petrah-suff.ANA the thing
#     GERUND                                   OBLag
# the action of manifesting itself by the thing
# There exist Stative Intransitive predicates in Malagasy, which simply canNOT
# be passivized. Consult Part Two, Stative Nominals in Malagasy further below.
# This is an instance of use of a Stative Intransitive predicate. Nevertheless
# there is a different meaning of the root petraka 'sitting down', which is not
# a Stative Intransitive and to such an extent, can undergo passive.


# Only Option 2 is possible with verb mamototra transitive 'to investigate
# Root fototra 'root, probe', stem fotor 'let (something) be probed into'.

# Option.1 = Ungrammatical sequence comprising GERUND & GEN.
# Ungrammatical:
  ny famotorany
# ny  f-          a(n>)m-  (f)otor-   an(a)/ny
# the HABITUALasp-ActiveAN-Stem.fotor-suff.ANA/of.him/hers
#     GERUND                               GEN
# his/her/its investigation
# Attached to passive suffix ANA we generally expect an OBLIQUE-agent;
# in the case above we get a GENitive;

# However if the GENitive is HUMAN & can unequivocally be interpreted as OBLag
# the sequence becomes fully grammatical:
  ny famotoran' ny polisy
# ny  f-          a(n>)m-  (f)otor-   an(a)'   ny polisy
# the HABITUALasp-ActiveAN-Stem.fotor-suff.ANA the police
#       GERUND                                 OBLag
# the investigation by the police

# as opposed to the following

# Option.2 = Grammatical, Action Nominal comprising GERUND & OBJ.
   ny famotorana azy
# ny  f-    a(n>)-   (f>)motor- ana      azy
# the asp.F-ActiveAN-Stem.fotor-suff.ANA him/her
#      GERUND                            OBJ
# the investigating him/her
# In this instance, we have a transitive gerund verb which requires an object.


# Both Options 1 and 2 are possible with verbs like mitombo intransitive 'to increase'
# Root tombo [stress on 'tom']'(an) increase', stem tombo [stress on 'mbo']'let (something) be increased'.

# Option.1: Deverbal Noun, STATIVE nominal with Root & GEN. 
  ny fitombon’ny hafanana
# ny  f-          i-      tombo-n(a)’          ny hafanana
# Det HABITUALasp-ActiveI-Root.tombo-clitic.NA the heat
#     STATIVE nominal                          GEN
# the increase of heat
# the increase in temperature;
# Note the stress on 'tom'.

# as opposed to the following

# Option.2 = GERUND, Action Nominal with Stem & OBLag. 
  ny hitomboan’ny elanelana
# ny  h-  i-      tombo-     an(a)’   ny  elanelana
# the fut-ActiveI-Stem.tombo-suff.ANA the discrepancy
#      GERUND                          OBLag
# the action of increasing the discrepancy
# Note the stress on 'mbo'.


# All 3 three options described earlier are available with:
# Root vaki 'broken', stem vaki 'let (something) be broken', mamaky transitive 'to chop':

# Option.1: Derived Noun, STATIVE nominal with Root & GEN. 
# Marked Headless Relative Clauses:
  ny famakin'i Paoly kitay
# ny  f-          a(n>)-   (v>)maki- n(a)'     i    Paoly kitay
# the HABITUALasp-ActiveAN Root.vaki-clitic.NA D.sg P     wood
# the        STATIVE nominal                   GEN        OBJ
# the habitual manner with which Paul chops wood
# Note the stress on 'ma', indicating that we are dealing with a root followed by clitic.NA 'of'.

# Option.2 = GERUND, Action Nominal with Stem & OBLag. 
  ny famakian'i Paoly kitay
# ny  f-          a(n>)-   (v>)maki- an(a)'    i Paoly kitay
# the HABITUALasp-ActiveAN Stem.vaki-suff.ANA  D.sg P  wood
#    GERUND/Action Nominal                     OBLag   OBJ
# the action of chopping wood by Paul
# Note the stress on 'ki', indicating that we are dealing with a stem followed by an OBLagent.


# Option.3: Derived Noun with Root & OBLgen
# This option however represents a finite set.
  ny famakin'i Paoly
# ny  f-             a(n>)-  (v>)maki-n(a)'       i Paoly
# the Nominalizer.F-ActiveAN Root.vaki-clitic.NA  D.sg P
# the       Derived Noun                          OBLgen
# Paul's axe
# Note the stress on 'ma', indicating that we are dealing with a root followed by clitic.NA 'of'.
# To see that this set of items is finite, consult list of Exceptions in Part Two at the end of 
# Section One: Stative Nominals with prefix F.


# Root N asa 'work'
# # Option.1: Derived Noun, STATIVE nominal with Root & GEN. 
# Marked Headless Relative Clause:
  ny fiasan'i Paoly
# ny  f-          i-      asa-     n(a)'     i   Paoly
# the HABITUALasp-ActiveI-Root.asa-clitic.NA D.g Paul
#     STATIVE nominal                        GEN
# the habitual manner with which Paul works
# Stress on 'a', indicating that we are dealing with a root followed by clitic.NA 'of'.
# Presumably the missing HeadNoun is fomba 'manner'.

# Option.2 = GERUND, Action Nominal with Stem & OBLag. 
  ny fiasan'i Paoly tany
# ny  f-          i-      asa-     an(a)'    i    Paoly tany
# the HABITUALasp-ActiveI-Stem.asa-suff.ANA  D.sg P     earth
#     GERUND                                 OBLag      OBJ
# the way Paul uses to work (the) earth
# Stress on 'sa', indicating that we are dealing with a stem followed by an OBLagent,
# but note the presence of OBJ (hence, GERUND).

# Option.3: Derived Noun involving amalgamation with Stem & GEN replacing OBLag.
# Marked Headless Relative Clause:
  ny fiasan'i Paoly
# ny  f-            i-      asa-     (a)n(a)'    i    Paoly
# the Nominalizer.F-ActiveI-Stem.asa-suff.ANA/NA D.sg Paul
#     Derived Noun                  amalgamation GEN
# the where Paul works
# Paul's workplace
# Note: Stress on 'sa', but absence of OBJ (hence, nominalization).
# Presumably the missing HeadNoun is toerana 'place'.



# Part Two:

# Part Two will deal with prototypical aspects of the two different types of Nominalization
# in Malagasy: Stative nominals involving a Root followed by clitic NA 'of' and a genitive (GEN)
# & Action nominals involving a Stem followed by passive suffix ANA 'by' and an OBLIQUE-agent
# (OBLag).

# In Malagasy Stative Nominals comprise at least the following constructions: Stative Nominals with
# prefix F to be dealt with in Section One; Stative Nominals with prefix HA to be dealt with in Section
# Two; whereas Action nominals comprise a construction involving nominalizer prefix F along with Default 
# verbal prefix AHA to be dealt with towards the end of Section Three below.


# Section One: Stative Nominals with prefix F.

# The following Stative N roots do not allow passive voice at all; only Stative nominalization
# with the following template is possible: Nominalizer.F + ActiveI + Root + clitic.NA + GEN
# where 'root' is to be kept distinguished from 'stem', where clitic NA 'of' is attached to a root and
# where GEN represents an obligatory element in the genitive case;

# { etry 'dwindling', gororoana 'noise_of_water_being_poured', hahaka 'scattering', hahy 
# 'act_of_sunning_and_drying_things', haotra 'scratching', hozohozo 'shake', hozongozona 
# 'shaking_off', itatra 'enlargement_extension', kaonti 'account', korisa 'sliding_rolling', 
# pararetra 'vibration', pelika 'showoff', piaka 'click_of_knife_or_lock', pirina 'arrangement',
# raviravi 'suspension', ravona 'levelling', redareda 'flaming_of_fire', rehitra 'fire', 
# renireni 'roving_wandering', rimorimo 'buzzing_as_of_bees', rindra 'arrangement', 
# rofotra explosion', rona 'slant', rona 'slant', sabaka 'straddling', savoana 'high_flying', 
# tete 'leaking_drop_by_drop', traka 'lift', tsimoka 'sprout_growth', tsiri 'sprout', 
# tsiririka 'jet_of_liquid', ... }


# Where it is possible to have Stative nominal as well as Action nominal, as with the following roots

# { idina 'pouring_out', iditra 'enter', kaonty 'account', riorio 'wandering around', sandratra 'elevation', 
# tombana 'evaluation_appraisal', tranga 'happening_show', ... }

# the Stative nominal typically describes an habitual manner of doing something or a spontaneous occurrence 
# without any deliberate intent, where the action nominal describes a deliberate intent in doing something. 
# Thus:

# F + ActiveI + tranga + NA + GEN
  ny fitrangan'ny raharaha
# ny  f-            i-tranga-     n(a)'         ny raharaha
# the Nominalizer.F-I-root.tranga-clitic.NA'of' the affair
# 'the habitual manner in which the affair is developing (spontaneously)'
# where root 'tranga' has its main stress on 'tran';

# Ungrammatical:
  ny fitranga
# ny  f-            i-tranga
# the Nominalizer.F-I-root.tranga
# 'the habitual manner of developing'
# where root 'tranga' has its main stress on 'tran';

# F + ActiveI + trangan + ANA + OBLagent
  ny fitrangan'i Paoly
# ny  f-          i-  trangan'              i Paoly
# the Nominalizer.F-I-stem.trangan-suff.ANA OBLag
# 'the deliberate appearance made by Paul'
# where haplology affects passive suffix ANA reducing fitrangan<ANA> to fitrangan
# and where main stress falls on 'gan' ot the stem 'trangan';

# F + ActiveI + kaonti + NA + GEN
  ny fikaontin'i Paoly
# ny  f-            i-kaonti-     n(a)'           i    Paoly
# the Nominalizer.F-I-root.kaonti-clitic.NA'of/by D.sg 'Paul
# 'the habitual manner Paul has of counting'
# where the root 'kaonti' has its main stress on 'ka'

F + ActiveI + kaonti + ANA + OBLagent
  ny fikaontin'i Paoly
# ny  f-            i-kaonti-     an(a)'       i    Paoly
# the Nominalizer.F-I-stem.kaonti-suff.ANA'by' D.sg 'Paul
# 'the manner Paul uses to serenade (a woman)'
# where the stem has its stress on 'nti'


# EXCEPTIONS:

# A finite set of remarkable Stative Nominals where F-Nominalization designates an instrument:
# There are Nouns like famaky 'axe', which are based on the Stative Nominal template, i.e.
# Nominalizer.F + ActiveAN + Root.vaki + (NA + OBLgen)
# where NA + OBLgen is optional, as previously described above.
  ny famakin'i Paoly
# ny  f-             a(n>)-  (v>)maki-n(a)'           i Paoly
# the Nominalizer.F-ActiveAN Root.vaki-clitic.NA'of'  D.sg P
# the       Derived Noun                              OBLgen
# Paul's axe
# where Root vaki 'broken' has its stress on 'va', confirming indeed that it is a Root and NOT
# a Stem, which would have required stress on 'ki';
# Also note that NA + OBLgen is optional

# with ActiveAN { famaky N 'axe' from mamaky V transitive'to chop', fanjaitra N 'needle' from 
# manjaitra V transitive 'to sew', fanoto N 'pestle' from manoto V transitive 'to ram into', 
# fanovo N 'bucket' from manovo V transitive 'to gather (water)',  ...  } 

# There are also Nouns like fihogo 'comb', which are based on the Stative Nominal template, i.e.
# Nominalizer.F + ActiveI + Root.hogo + (NA + OBLgen)
# where NA + OBLgen is optional
# and which designate an instrument;

# The above applies to the following roots, which can combine with verbal prefix ActiveI
# { fiteny N 'dialect' from miteny V trans/intransitive'to speak', fihogo N 'comb' from mihogo 
# V trans/intransitive'to comb one's hair', fiharatra N 'razor' from miharatra V trans/
# intransitive 'to shave', fitaratra N 'mirror' from mitaratra V intransitive 'to mirror, to scan', ... }

# In addition, we should also note the following contrast:
# Open-ended process contrasting 'HABITUAL manner of Ving' --characteristic of Stative Nominals-- as 
# opposed to Action Nominals designating nouny entities indicating, for example, a LOCATION, i.e. 
# workplace, etc:

# Contrast Stative Nominal vs Action Nominal designating a workplace, origin, the action of Ving, ... =
# { fianatra 'habitual manner of learning of someone' from mianatra 'to study' vs fianarana 'school', 
# fiasa 'habitual manner of working of someone' from miasa 'to work' vs fiasana 'workplace', fiavy 
# 'habitual manner of coming along of someone/people' from root avy 'coming' vs fiaviana 'origin', 
# fiavona 'habitual manner of showing contempt' from miavona 'to show contempt' vs fiavonana 
# 'the action of showing contempt', ... }


# Section Two: Stative Nominals with prefix HA

# Malagasy Abstract Nouns with HA prefix:
# Malagasy has abstract nouns, which conform to the following template
# HA + Root/Stem + clitic.NA/suffix.ANA = Stative Nominal
# not to be confused with a totally different sequence, which can be analyzed thus
# H + Stem + suff.INA/ANA  = Passive.1 (DO/IO > SUBJ) in the future tense
# where HA can be decomposed into a future tense-marker h + a of a verbal Stem, as in
  hazavaina
# h-  a-zava-     ina
# fut-A-Stem.zava-suff.ina
# will be explained
# based on the adjective mazava ma + zava 'light'.

# NOTE: In addition, the HA nominal prefix being dealt with here is not to be confused with 
# Nominal F + AHA ... + ANA involving Adj mainly and where AHA is a Default prefix licensing 
# suffix.ANA of probably Passive.2.


# The following N roots can only take a nominalizing prefix HA to refer a state of being in the condition 
# described by N, but typically rule out the corresponding Action Nominal represented in this other
# template: F + AHA + Stem + suffix.ANA illustrated below with the word 'fahazazana''days of childhood'.

# { bibi 'animal', foka 'idiot', hia 'leanness', lama 'slipperiness', lemi 'softness', lezo 'flimsiness',
# loto 'dirt_filthiness', loza 'calamity_danger', manga 'blue', mavo 'any_dull_light_color_such_as_grey_or_tan',
# ngidi 'bitterness', nifi 'thinness', ranitra 'sharpness', renina 'deafness', siaka 'fierceness_violence'
# tanjaka 'strength_vigor', teza 'firmness_and_durability', tsatso 'insipidity', tsiro 'taste', zava 'light',

# what is interesting with this subset is that we are no longer dealing with a straightforward 'root' or 'stem',
# we have a fuzzy area represented as ambivalent 'Root/Stem' and where instead of obligatory GEN, as was the 
# case earlier as described in Section One above, we have suffix ANA.

  ny habibiana 
# ny ha-bibi-ana
# ny  HA        + bibi           + ANA
# the prefix.HA + Root/Stem.bibi + ANA
# 'the nature of being an animal, cruelty (apparent through one's actions)'
# where normally root bibi 'animal' should have its main stress on the first syllable although here it falls on
# the second syllable; and where in addition, suffix ANA 'of' does usually require a GEN.


# The following N roots can take a nominalizing prefix HA to refer a state of being in the condition 
# described by N as opposed to the corresponding Action Nominal, which typically follows this other
# template:  F + AHA + zaza + ANA/(OBLgen)

# zaza N 'child' 
  ny hazazan'i Paoly
# ny  ha-         zaza-            n(a)'i Paoly 
# the prefix.HA + Root/Stem.zaza + NA     GEN
# 'the state of Paul being an innocent child, innocence'
# where we have GEN, which is required;
# where normally root zaza should have its main stress on the first syllable; here it falls on the second
# syllable;

  ny fahazazana N '(days of) childhood of (someone)'
# ny f-              aha-  zaza-            (a)na
# ny Nominalizer.F + AHA + Root/Stem.zaza + ANA
# 'the days of childhood, childhood'
# where no genitive is required;
# where prefix AHA is a Default prefix used in conjunction with the suffix ANA of Passive.2 (whenever the 
# relevant predicate does not comprise an active voice prefix AN(A) or I); recall that Passive.2 requires
# that there be a verbal prefix when an oblique argument is promoted to subject along with verbal suffix ANA;
# where normally root zaza should have its main stress on the first syllable; here it falls on the second
# syllable;


# Note that the vast majority of the roots provided in this section require prefix HA in that the bare roots
# cited above simply do not have any dictionary entry at all! For example, there are no dictionary entries
# for items such as 'lama', 'lemy', 'ngidy', 'ranitra' or 'renina', which simply canNOT be used in actual
# sentences.



# Section Three: Distribution of OBLag, OBLgen & GEN and Nouniness Continuum.
# As will become apparent below, the more nouny a predicate is the more likely it will be to allow dropping 
# of for example GEN whereas the less nouny it is, the more it tends to maintain OBLag, for instance.

# In this section, we will illustrate the following pattern:
# Clitic NA 'of' + GEN where GEN is obligatory
# Amalgamated Passive.2 suffix ANA + GEN where GEN is obligatory;
# Passive.2 suffix ANA + (OBLagent) where OBLagent is optional;
# Passive.2 ANA + (OBLgen) OBLgen is optional;

# a/ Stative Nominal HA + ... + clitic.NA.of + GEN
# where clitic NA 'of' + GEN is obligatory;

# Mixed.Stative HA + ... + ANA + (OBLgen)
# where Passive.2 suffix ANA is obligatory, but OBLgen is optional;

# b/ Action Nominal F + AHA + Stem + suffix.ANA + OBLgen involving Adj mainly
# and where AHA is a Default prefix licensing suffix.ANA of Passive.2
# where ANA is obligatory, but OBLgen is optional.
# However note that Action Nominals involving ActiveAN or ActiveI + suffix.ANA of Passive.2
# are NOT dealt with in this section.


# The data on which the above generalizations are based are ADJ roots, we now consider the case of Adjectives.

# Subsection One:
# It is possible in Malagasy to take a root ADJ and use prefix HA to derive a Noun, yielding
# the following template.
# Stative Nominal HA + Root + clitic.NA.of + GEN
# where clitic NA 'of' + GEN is obligatory;

# be ADJ 'big'
  ny haben'ny trano
# ny  ha-  be-       n(a)'       ny trano
# the HA + Root.be + clitic.NA + GEN
# 'the dimensions of the house'
# the fact that GEN is obligatory suggests that this construction is less nouny than one involving the Action
# Nominal structure F + AHA + Stem + ANA as in for instance the Derived Noun fahazazana 'childhood'.

# Ungrammatical:
  ny habena
# ny  ha-  be-       na
# the HA + Root.be + clitic.NA
# 'the dimensions of'

# Ungrammatical:
  ny habe
# ny  ha-  be
# the HA + Root.be
# 'the dimensions'

# masiaka ADJ 'ferocious'
  ny hasiakan'ny alika
# ny  ha-  siaka-       n(a)'ny alika
# the HA + root.siaka + NA +  GEN
# 'the ferocity of the dog'
# the fact that GEN is obligatory suggests that this construction is less nouny than one involving the Action
# Nominal structure F + AHA + Stem + ANA as in for instance the Derived Noun fahazazana 'childhood'.

# Ungrammatical:
  ny hasiakana
# ny  ha-  siaka-       na
# the HA + root.siaka + NA
# 'the ferocity of'

# Ungrammatical:
  ny hasiaka
# ny ha-siaka
# the HA + root.siaka
# 'the ferocity'

# The above applies to the following items:
# { masiaka 'fierce', avo 'high', bado 'stupid', be'big', betsaka 'numerous', dombo 'blunt_dull_on_edge',
# donto 'blunt', fisaka 'flat', fohi 'short', fotsi 'white', gaga 'astonished', iva 'low', keli 'small',
# kinga 'clever', kivi 'discouraged_dismayed', lalina 'deep', lava 'long', lavitra 'far_away', lavorari 
# 'perfect_well_accomplished', lefaka 'lax', lehibe 'big', mailaka 'nimble_quick', maina 'dry',
# mainti'black', maitso 'green', maivana 'light_in_weight', mami 'sweet', maro 'many', mena 'red'
# mora 'easy', ngita 'kinky', ratsi 'bad', sarotra 'difficult', simba 'destroyed_damaged', sola 'bald'
# tanora 'young_immature', tavi 'fat', teri 'tight', tomadi 'strong_muscular', tsara 'good', vetiveti 
# 'in_instant_in_little_while', vitsi 'smallness_of_number', voretra 'dirty_untidy' }

# Also note the remarkable case of ADJ velona 'alive' in Nominal fahavelona 'when (someone) was alive' 
# which requires a GEN.


# Subsection Two:
# It is also possible in Malagasy to take a stem ADJ and use prefix HA to derive a Noun, yielding
# the following template.
# Mixed.Stative HA + Stem + ANA + (OBLgen)
# where Passive.2 suffix ANA is obligatory, but OBLgen is optional;

# ny habadoana N 'ignorance'
  ny habadoan' i Paoly
# ny  ha-  bado-  an' i Paoly
# the HA + bado + ANA OBLgen
# 'the ignorance of Paul (apparent through his actions)'
# Mixed.Stative Nominal H(A) + Stem.bado + ANA + OBLgen
# Note the stem 'bado' followed by Passive.2 suffix ANA and Oblique-Genitive;
# Note that suffix ANA is obligatory, but that OBLgen is optional.

  ny habadoana
# ny  ha-  bado-  ana
# the HA + bado + ANA
# 'the ignorance (apparent through one's actions)'
# Mixed.Stative Nominal H(A) + Stem.bado + ANA
# the fact that GEN is not obligatory suggests that this construction is more nouny than two previous
# HA Nominals 'habe' 'size' and 'hasiaka''cruelty', which both require a GEN.


# Ungrammatical:
  ny habado
# ny  ha-  bado
# the HA + bado
# 'the ignorance'
# Mixed.Stative Nominal H(A) + Stem.bado

# The above applies to the following items:
# { bado 'stupid', habadoana N 'ignorance'; faingana 'quick_prompt, hafainganana N 'speed'; fali 'happy_joyous',
# hafaliana N 'joy (state)'; fetsi 'sly_cunning_sharp', hafetsena N 'cunningness'; mamo 'drunk', hamamoana 
# N 'state of being drunk'; maro 'many', hamaroana N 'state of being numerous (nonstative); noana 'hungry',
# reraka 'tired', harerahana N 'state of being tired (mixed.stative); sasatra 'tired_weary', hasasarana 
# N 'state of being weary'; sempotra 'out_of_breath_stifled', hasemporana N 'state of being out of breath,
#  suffocation (mixed.stative)'; sompatra 'malicious_doing_wanton_damage', hasomparana N 'wanton damage 
# (mixed.stative)' sosotra 'angry', hasosorana N 'anger (mixed.stative)'; taitra 'surprised', hatairana N 
# 'state of being surprised, surprise (mixed.stative)'; tretrika 'happy_having_all_one_could_desire', 
# hatretrehana N 'state of being blissful (miced.stative)'; tsemboka 'sweaty', hatsembohana N 'state of 
# being sweaty (mixed.stative)'; vetaveta 'indecent_loathsome', havetavetana N 'indecent behaviour 
# (mixed.stative)'; vizana 'tired', havizanana N 'state of being tired (mixed.stative)' }


# Subsection Three:
# Finally it is possible in Malagasy to take a stem and use Nominalizer.F + a Default prefix AHA to 
# derive a Noun, yielding the following template.
# F + AHA + Stem + suffix.ANA + OBLgen

# Action nominals in Malagasy & Default verbal prefix AHA:
# Default prefix AHA as opposed to ActiveAN or ActiveI prefix
# in 'circumstantial' passive voice AN ... ANA or I ... ANA
# explored earlier in Part One under the section entitled
# Some background information involving relative clauses (NRel), specifically
# An Oblique argument is 'advanced' to SUBJECT: OBL > SUBJ

# b/ Action Nominal F + AHA + Stem + suffix.ANA + OBLgen involving Adj mainly
# and where AHA is a Default prefix licensing suffix.ANA of Passive.2
# where ANA is obligatory, but OBLgen is optional. There exist at least two cases where
# this situation will arise: (a) a Noun root will not take a verbal prefix at all
# and (b) a Verb root does not allow a verbal prefix whatsoever.

# As seen above, the following N zaza 'child' can take a nominalizing prefix HA to refer a state of being 
# in the condition described by N as well as the corresponding Action Nominal, which typically follows this 
# other template:  F + AHA + zaza + ANA/(OBLgen)

# The case of Noun root & Default AHA prefix in Action Nominalization.
# zaza N 'child' 
  ny hazazan'i Paoly
# ny  ha-         zaza-            n(a)'i Paoly 
# the prefix.HA + Root/Stem.zaza + NA     GEN
# 'the state of Paul being an innocent child, innocence'
# where we have GEN, which is required;
# where normally root zaza should have its main stress on the first syllable; here it falls on the second
# syllable;

  ny fahazazana N '(days of) childhood of (someone)'
# ny f-              aha-  zaza-            (a)na
# ny Nominalizer.F + AHA + Root/Stem.zaza + ANA
# 'the days of childhood, childhood'
# where no genitive is required;
# where prefix AHA is a Default prefix used in conjunction with the suffix ANA of Passive.2 (whenever the 
# relevant predicate does not comprise an active voice prefix AN(A) or I); recall that Passive.2 requires
# that there be a verbal prefix when an oblique argument is promoted to subject along with verbal suffix ANA;
# where normally root zaza should have its main stress on the first syllable; here it falls on the second
# syllable;


# The case of Verb root & Default AHA prefix in Action Nominalization.
# In general in Malagasy, on the one hand a root takes a verbal prefix either ActiveAN or ActiveI to yield a 
# well-formed verbal predicate that can be used in a sentence. However there are cases where a root canNOT 
# accommodate a verbal prefix at all. One such item is the verbal root tonga 'arrived'.

# tonga V root 'arrived'
  tonga i Paoly
# tonga i Paoly
# arrived D.sg Paul
# 'Paul arrived.'

# The root V tonga 'arrived' canNOT accommodate any verbal prefix at all, whether it is ActiveAN or ActiveI:
# Ungrammatical:
  mitonga
# m-i-tonga
# pres-ActiveI-root.tonga
# This form simply does NOT exist in Malagasy;
# 'to arrive'

# Ungrammatical:
  manonga
# m-an-(t)onga
# pres-ActiveAN-root.tonga
# This form simply does NOT exist in Malagasy;
# 'to arrive'

# On the other hand, in order to satisfy the required template for Action Nominal, i.e. specifically
#  F + VerbalPrefix + Stem + suffix.ANA + OBLgen/GEN
# where suffix ANA 'by' of Passive.2 must first be licensed by a verbal prefix, Malagasy has recourse
# to a Default prefix AHA, as illustrated for instance in the nominal fahazazana 'childhood'.
# In the case of the verbal root tonga 'arrived', we obtain a structure involving amalgamation:
  ny fahatongavan'i Paoly
# ny  f-  aha-  tongav-       an(a)'i Paoly
# the F + AHA + Stem.tongav + ANA   GEN 
# 'the arrival of Paul'
# Normally passive.2 suffix ANA is followed by OBLagent, but not in this structure which somehow leans 
# slightly less towards the nouny end of a nouniness continuum, hence the obligatory GEN.