# Verb-initial grammars: A multilingual/parallel perspective # ESRC Project RES-000-23-0505 # Oxford University # Charles Randriamasimanana # Malagasy phonetics/phonology & morphology: # Stress assignment in Malagasy: ESRC-OX-05-CR109. # Stress assignment preliminaries: # First approximaton - Keenan & Polinsky (1998): # A. One-syllable roots - stress on only syllable: # ré 'be-heard', voa /vu/ 'be-hit'; # where the acute accent indicates main stress; # B. Two-syllable roots - stress on penultimate: # léna 'wet', léla 'tongue', vády 'spouse', vítsy 'few', fótsy 'white'; # C. Three-syllable roots - stress on penultimate # omály 'yesterday, karáma 'salary', tanóra 'young', atsímo 'south'; # D. Unless words end in ka, tra & na' in which case # antepenultimate stress # tápaka 'cut', vóhitra 'hill', tánana 'hand'; # E. Roots of four or more syllables - secondary stress ` to # every second syllable working back from main stress ´ # àntsipíka 'pocket knife', tàbatába 'noise'; # where grave accent indicates secondary stress; # Problem areas: # the form 'tapa-dRabe' does not exist in Malagasy; # the form 'fanta-dRabe' does not exist in Malagasy; # this is due to lack of consideration of size of words and words ending in { k, tr, n }. # Metrical stress approach - Erwin 1996: # Assumption 1: A syllable node dominating one mora is light; a syllable dominating two moras is heavy. # One-syllable words: # One-mora syllables: # fé 'thigh', fó 'heart', rá 'blood', ló 'rotten', ró 'sauce', vy 'metal', zó 'rights' # Two-mora syllables: # ray /rai/ 'father', hoy /hui/ 'is said', toy /tui/ 'like', lay /lai/ 'tent'; # Assumption 2 - Morafication Algorithm: A vowel projects a mora. # Assumption 3 - Syllabification Algorithm: A mora projects a syllable and becomes a nucleus; # all non-moraic segments are syllabified as onsets. # Assumption 4 - Syllabification Algorithm: Match segmental material to the following template # syllable # C V # Stress Assignment - Bimoraic Foot Hypothesis # Stress is construed by parsing the word into feet. # Feet consist of two moras, and are built from right to left. # Generalization 1 : Most words in Malagasy have primary stress on the penultimate syllable. # Two-syllable words - stress on penultimate: # léna 'wet', léla 'tongue', vády 'spouse', vítsy 'few', fótsy 'white'; # where an acute accent indicates main stress; # Three-syllable words - stress on penultimate: # omály 'yesterday, karáma 'salary', tanóra 'young', atsímo 'south', lománo 'swimming' # manéry m+an+(t)ery 'to force', manéty m+an+(h)ety 'to cut with scissors', manídy m+an+(h)idy # 'to lock up', manófa m+an+(h)ofa 'to rent', manósy m+an+(h)osy 'to trample'; # where an acute accent indicates main stress; # Four-or-more-syllable words - stress on penultimate: # salasála 'hesitation', famantaranándro 'watch, clock', fiarakodía 'vehicle', tsikombakómba 'corruption'; # where an acute accent indicates main stress; # Stress Assignment - End Rule Right: # Assign primary stress to one stressed element; all other stressed elements receive secondary stress. # Assign secondary stress on even-numbered syllables counting backwards from the primary stress. # sàlasála 'hesitation', fàmantàranándro 'watch, clock', fìaràkodía 'vehicle', tsikàmbakómba 'corruption'; # a main stress is marked with an acute accent, whereas a grave accent indicates secondary stress; # Generalization 2 : Word final diphthongs are always stressed. # manáo 'to do' # indráy 'once' # bemiráy 'patched together from different pieces' # hatrizay 'since then' # mandráy 'to receive' # izáy 'that' # iráy 'one' # Malagasy has a strong ban on Degenerate Foot represented between < ... >: # résa 'conversation' # pétra 'deposit # áka 'ascension' # véla 'width' # tséntsi 'clogged up' # néni 'regrets' # Adjustments: # Generalization 3: Words ending in { k, tr, n } tend to have a final devoiced vowel, but # are subject to Generalization 1. However note: # that if the word has 3 or more than 3 syllables excluding the verbal prefix # tápa 'cut' the unit within <...> does not count for the purpose of syllable counting; # saríta 'disorder', vóhi 'hill', évo 'bouncing ball', mási 'holy', # sítra 'cured', tóko 'must', fára 'last', sása 'some'. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ # Syllabification indicated by dots & where <...> = extrasyllabic: # lena le.na 'wet'; # lela le.la 'tongue'; # vady va.di 'spouse'; # vitsy vi.tsi 'few'; # fotsy fu.tsi 'white'; # sasa sa.sa 'wash'; # valy va.li 'answer'; # note that in Malagasy stress is almost entirely predictable and therefore will not # be indicated in general unless it is phonemic in nature; # also note that a syllable is demarcated with a dot; # fiara fi.a.ra 'vehicle'; # doboka du.bu. 'loud noise'; # hataka ha.ta. 'request' # toetra tu.e.tra > twe.tra 'state, condition, behaviour'; # velatra ve.la. 'width' # nenina ne.ni. 'regrets'; # tsentsina tsen.tsi. 'clogged up'; # valona va.lu. 'fold'; # Note that { ka, tra, na } is not extrasyllabic in words of less than 3 syllables. # korontana ku.run.ta. 'turmoil'; # fiarakodia fi.a.ra.ku.di.a 'car'; # salasala sa.la.sa.la 'hesitation'; # famantaranandro fa.man.ta.ra.nan.dro 'watch, clock'; # tsikombakomba tsi.ku.mba.ku.mba 'corruption'; # manolaka m+an+(t)olaka 'to embezzle', ma.nu.la. > manúla; # manakatra m+an+akatra ma.na.ka. 'pres-an-akatra''to reach'; # miakatra m+i+akatra mi.a.ka. 'pres-i-akatra'to ascend'; # mamelona m+an+(v)elona 'to nourish", passive 2 indicative amelomana an+(v)elom+ana # a.me.lu.ma. > amelúma; # Note that { ka, tra, na } is extrasyllabic in words of more than 3 syllables. # Also note the existence of a word 'mba' = optative mood in Malagasy. # End Rule Right assigning primary stress on penultimate: # bu.ka bóka 'who has leprosy'; # tsu.tra tsótra 'easy'; # le.na léna 'wet'; # le.la léla 'tongue'; # va.di vády 'spouse'; # vi.tsi vítsy 'few'; # fu.tsi fótsy 'white'; # sa.sa sása 'wash'; # va.li vály 'answer'; # Note that we do count { ka, tra, na}, i.e. in words of less than 3 syllables. # doboka du.bu. dú.bu. 'loud noise'; # hataka ha.ta. há.ta. 'request'; # ma.na.ka. > ma.ná.ka. 'pres-an-akatra''to reach' # mi.a.ka. > mi.á.ka. 'pres-i-akatra'to ascend'; # toetra tu.e.tra > twe.tra twé.tra 'state, condition, behaviour'; # velatra ve.la. vé.la. 'width' # nenina ne.ni. né.ni. 'regrets'; # tsentsina tsen.tsi. tsén.tsi. 'clogged up'; # valona va.lo. vá.lu. 'fold'; # Note that we do not count the extrasyllabic { ka, tra, na }, i.e. in words of 3 or more syllables. # fiara fi.a.ra fiára 'vehicle'; # fiarakodia fi.a.ra.ku.di.a > fiarakodía 'car'; # salasala sa.la.sa.la > salasála 'hesitation'; # famantaranandro fa.man.ta.ra.nan.dro > famantaranándro 'watch, clock'; # tsikombakomba tsi.ku.mba.ku.mba > tsikombakómba 'corruption'; # End Rule Right assigning secondary stress on even-numbered syllables counting # backwards from the primary stress, where an acute accent represents main stress, # and where a grave accent marks secondary stress, and O is an instruction to # skip a given syllable: # sa.la.sa.la salasála sà O sá la = sàlasála 'hesitation'; # fa.man.ta.ra.nan.dru famantaranándro fà O tà O án = fàmantàranándro 'watch, clock'; # fi.a.ra.ku.di.a fiarakodía fì O rà O dí = fìaràkodía 'car'; # tsi.ku.mba.ku.mba tsikombakómba O kú O kú = tsikòmbakómba 'corruption'. # Verbs with prefix & where ´ represents main stress on penultimate: # Prefixation does not affect stress placement: # Root ré 'be-heard (perception)'; active voice mandre m+an+d+re man.dré 'pres-prf.an-ep.d-root.re''to hear'; # Root lá 'refusal, denial'; active voice manda m+an+(l>d)a 'pres-prf.an-root.la' man.dá 'to refuse, to deny'; # Root omé 'donation'; active voice manome m+an+ome ma.nu.mé 'pres-prf.an-root.ome''to give'; # Root rítra '(be)-dried-up, evaporated'; active voice mandritra m+an+d+ritra 'pres-prf.an-ep.d-root.ritra' # man.drí.tra 'to dry up'; # the word has exactly 3 syllables, including the prefix, so no <...>, where <...> does not # count for the purpose of syllable counting: # Root vóky 'full (from eating)', mamóky m+a(n>m)+(v)oky 'pres-prf.an-root.voky' > m+am+oky ma.mó.ky 'to misinform' # Root féno 'full', maméno m+a(n>m)+(f)eno 'pres-prf.an-root.feno' > m+am+eno 'to fill up' # Root dótra /dutra/ 'burning', mandótra 'to burn' ; # Root lóaka /loaka/'(be)-with-a-hole-in-it'; active voice mandoaka m+an+(l>d)oaka 'pres-prf.an-root.loaka' # 'to-make-a-hole-in-(sth)' > m+an+doka man.dó.ka ; # the word has 4 syllables, so <...> on 'ka' # mamóla m+a(n>m)+(f)olaka 'pres-prf.an-root.folaka''to bend' > m+am+olaka; # mamántsi m+a(n>m)+(f)antsika 'pres-prf.an-root.fantsika''to nail' > m+am+antsika; # mangáta m+an+(h>g))ataka 'pres-prf.an-root.hataka''to request' > m+an+gataka; # the word has 4 syllables, so <...> on 'tra' # mamánta m+a(n>m)+(f)antatra 'pres-prf.an-root.fantatra''to find out about' > m+am+antatra ; # mangála m+an+(h>g)alatra 'pres-prf.an-root.halatra''to steal' > m+an+galatra; # mamári m+a(n>m)+(f)aritra 'pres-prf.an-root.faritra''to limit' > m+am+aritra; # the word has 4 syllables, so <...> on 'na' # mangáro m+an+(h>g)arona 'pres-prf.an-root.harona'> m+an+garona man.ngá.ru. 'to deepely search'; # mangóro m+an+(h>g)orona 'pres-prf.an-root.harona'> m+an+gorona man.ngú.ru. 'to pick up'; # mamálona m+a(n>m)+(v)alona 'pres-pref.an-root.valona'> m+am+alona ma.má.lu. 'fold'; # the word has 5 syllables, so <...> on 'na' # manafoana m+ana+foana 'pres-prf.ana-root.foana' ma.na.fo.a. manafóana 'to annul'; # manasitrana m+ana+sitrana 'pres-prf.ana-root.sitrana' ma.na.sí.tra. 'to cure'; # Verbs with suffix & where ´ represents main stress on penultimate: # Suffixation affects stress & requires stress shift: # Root potika pú.ti. '(be)-smashed'; mamotika m+a(n>m)+(p)otika 'pres-prf.an-root.potika' > # m+am+otika 'to smash'; # passive 1 imperative poteho poteh+u 'stem.puteh-suffix.u''(let-sth)-be-smashed-by.you'; # passive 1 indicative potehina puteh+ina 'stem.puteh-suffix.ina''(which)-is-being-smashed' # or '(which-is)-usually-smashed' pú.teh+ina > pu.téh.i. > pu.té.hi.; # Root voky vú.ki 'full (from eating)', passive 1 indicative vokisana voki+s+ana # 'stem.vukis-suffix.ana''(s.one)-is-usually-misinformed' or '(s.one)-is-being-misinformed'; # vú.ki+s+a. > vu.kí.sa.; # Root fantatra fán.ta. '(be)-known'; mamantatra m+a(n>m)+(f)antatra 'pres-prf.an-root.fantatra' > # m+am+antatra 'to try to find out about, to guess'; passive 1 imperative fantaro fantar+u ' # 'stem.fantar-suffix.u'(I-put-you-on-notice:let-sth)-be-known-to.you'; passive 1 indicative fantarina # fantar+ina 'stem.fantar-suffix.ina''(be)-usually-known' or '(is)-being-deliberately-found-out-about'; # fán.ta.+ina > fan.tá.ri.; # Root sitrana sí.tra. '(be)-cured'; active voice manasitrana m+ana+sitrana 'pres-prf.ana-root.sitrana' # 'to cure'; passive 1 imperative sitrano sitran+o 'stem.sitran-suffix.o''(let-s.one/sth)-be-cured-by.you'; # passive 1 indicative sitranina sitran+ina 'stem.sitran-suffix.ina''(the-one/that-which-is)-being-cured' # or '(the-one-who-is)-usually-cured'; sí.tra.+ina > si.tra.ni.na > si.trá.ni.; # Note crucial distinction between suffix 'ina' or 'ana', part of circumfix 'no...ina' or circumfix 'no...ana' # and epenthetic 'na'; suffix 'ina' or 'ana' requires stress shift, as it usually combines with a stem # implying something like a DELIBERATE kind of ACTIVITY; this contrasts with a root, which typically # refers to an AUTONOMOUS EVENT and does not combine with any affix at all --to introduce the EXPERIENCER, # epenthetic or clitic 'na' is attached to the root, which has absolutely no effect on stress. # For further explanation on this point, consult online document 'Malagasy syntax & semantics: # Passive affixes - ESRC-OX-05-CR106/204'. # Verbs with both prefix & suffix & where ´ represents main stress on penultimate: # Root potika pú.ti. '(be)-smashed'; passive 2 indicative amotehana # a(n>m)+(p)uteh+ana 'prf.an-stem.puteh-suffix.ana' > am+uteh+ana '(a-portion-of-sth)-be-smashed'; # a(n>m)+(p)uteh+ana > am+uteh-suffix.ana' amoteha > amotéha # Root fantatra fán.ta. '(be)-known'; passive 2 indicative amantarana a(n>m)+(f)antar+ana # 'prf.an-stem.fantar-suffix.ana' > am+antar+ana '(the-manner/instrument/time-at-which-sth)-be- # found-out-about-in-a-deliberate-manner'; a(n>m)+ (f)ántar+ana 'prf.an-stem.fantar-suffix.ana' > # am+antar+ana '> am+ antar+ana a.man.tá.ra.; # Root sitrana sí.tra. '(be)-cured'; passive 2 indicative anasitranana ana+sitran+ana # 'prf.ana-stem.sitran-suffix ana''(the-instrument/manner/time-at-which)-be-deliberately-cured'; # ana+sí.tra.+ana > a.na.si.trá.na.; # In the following words, two moras are assumed for the stressed vowels (long, intense): # mandá m+an+(l>d)a 'pres-prf.an-root.loa' > m+an+da 'to deny'; # mandó m+an+(l>d)o 'pres-prf.an-root.lo'> m+an+do 'to cause to rot'; # mamoy m+a(n>m)+(f)oy 'pres-prf.an-root.foy' > m+am+oy ma.mu.i > ma.múy 'to abandon'; # where word-final i is written y; # mandre m+an+d+re mandré 'pres-prf.an-epenthetic.d-root.re''to hear'; # Dipththong Formation has already applied when counting backwards takes place in the following # where dipththong ai > ay or ue > we bears main stress # manaiki ma.na.i.ki. > ma.nai.ki. > ma.nay.ki. > ma.náy.ki 'to bite' # from m+an+(k)aikitra 'pres-prf.an-root.kaikitra' > m+an+aikitra; # manaingoka m+an+(ts)aingoka > ma.nai.ngu. > ma.náy.ngu. 'to nimbly take away' # from m+an+(ts)aingoka 'pres=prf.an-root.tsaingoka; # or mitsaingoka m+i+tsaingoka 'pres-prf.i-root.tsaingoka' mi.tsai.ngu. > mi.tsay.ngu. # 'to take pieces of sth'; # zaitra za.i.tra > zai.tra > zay.tra> zay. tra 'sewing'; # toetra tu.e.tra > tue.tra > twe.tra > twé.tra 'behaviour'; # báiko 'order', ba.i.ku > bai.ku > bay.ku > báy.ku; # akáiky 'near', a.ka.i.ki > a.kai.ki > a.kay.ki > a.káy.ki; # áina 'breath, life', a.i.na > ai.na > ay.na > áy.na; # báinga 'prison', ba.in.ga > bain.ga > bay.nga > báy.nga. # Note the syllable ngu as in the word ngerona 'pitch black'. # However note that Dipththong Formation has not (yet) applied when backward counting commences in: # mangaina man.ga.i.na > mangái m+an+gaina 'to be disappointed' - the word has 4 syllables, # so <...> on 'na'; # valiana va.li.a. va.lí.a.; - the word has 4 syllables, so <...> on 'na'; # Root valy vá.li 'answer'; transitive mamaly m+a(n>m)+(v)aly 'pres-prf.an-valy' > m+am+aly 'to answer'; # intransitive mivaly m+i+valy '(which)-receives-an-answer'; passive 1 imperative valio vali+u '(let-sth)- # be answered-by.you'; passive 1 indicative valiana vali+ana 'vali-suffix.ana''(that-which)- # be-habitually-answered' or '(that-which-is)-being-answered';