# Verb-initial grammars: A multilingual/parallel perspective
# ESRC Project RES-000-23-0505
# Oxford University
# Charles Randriamasimanana

# Malagasy phonetics/phonology & morphology:
# Prefixation in Malagasy: ESRC-OX-05-CR108.

# In Malagasy, prefixation essentially involves either Strengthening of Initial 
# Consonant of Root or its Weakening, i.e. Deletion unless mutation v > b intervenes; 
# before Initial Consonant Deletion, Homorganic Nasal Assimilation applies first.

# Homorganic Nasal Assimilation or HNA (mainly involving labials, but also glottal h)

# HNA may apply depending on the environment:
# prefix an + vowel manafina m+an+afina 'pres-pref.an-afina''to hide';

# Prefix an + d  = an + d
# root dotra 'burn', mandotra m+an+dotra 'pres-pref.an-dotra''to burn up';
# root doboka 'loud noise'; mandoboka m+an+doboka 'pres-pref.an-doboka'
# 'to make a loud noise';
# root didy 'cut', mandidy m+an+didy 'pres-pref.an-didy''to cut';
# root dinika 'consultation', mandinika m+an+dinika 'pres-pref.an-dinika'
#'to examine';
# root dio 'cleanliness', mandio m+an+dio 'pres-pref.an-dio''to clean up';


# Prefix an + f > am + O
# HNA applies.

# root fantatra '(be)-known, mamantatra m+a(n>m)+(f)antatra 'pres-pref.an-fantatra' >
#  m+am+antatra 'to find out about';
# root foy 'given-up'; active voice = mamoy m+a(n>m)+(f)oy 'pres-prf.an-foy' > 
# m+am+oy 'to abandon';
# root feno 'full'(vs empty); active voice mameno m+a(n>m)+(f)eno 'pres-prf.an-feno' >
# m+am+eno 'to fill up';
# root folaka "(be)-bent'; active voice mamolaka m+a(n>m)+(f)olaka 'pres-prf.an-folaka' >
# m+am+olaka 'to bend';
# root fandrika 'trap', mamandrika m+a(n>m)+(f)andrika 'pres.prf.an-fandrika' > 
# m+am+andrika 'to trap';
# root faritra 'limit', mamaritra m+a(n>m)+(f)aritra 'pres-pref.an-faritra' > 
# m+am+aritra 'to limit';
# root fantsika 'nail', mamantsika m+a(n>m)+(f)antsika 'pres-pref.an-fantsika' >
# m+am+antsika 'to nail';

# Prefix an + k > an + O
# HNA does not apply.
# root kaikitra 'bite', manaikitra m+an+(k)aikitra 'pres-pref.an-kaikitra' > 
# m+an+aikitra 'to bite';
# root karama 'pay', manarama m+an+(k)arama 'pres-pref.an-karama > 
# m+an+arama 'to pay';
# root ketsa 'rice plants'; manetsa m+an+(k)etsa 'pres-pref.an-ketsa' > 
# m+an+etsa 'to transplant rice';

# Prefix an + g
# HNA applies.
# Note root geboka 'grab', mangeboka m+an+geboka 'pres-pref.an-geboka''to grab';

# Prefix an + h  + a [= + bk - hi ] > an + g + a
# HNA applies.
# root halatra 'theft', mangalatra m+an+(h>g)alatra 'pres-pref.an-halatra' > 
# m+an+galatra 'to steal';
# root hataka 'request', mangataka m+an+(h>g)ataka 'pres-pref.an-hataka' > 
# m+an+gataka 'to request';
# root harona 'searching', mangarona m+an+(h>g)arona 'pres-pref.an-harona' > 
# m+an+garona 'to deepely search';
# root gaina 'disappointed', mangaina m+an+gaina 'pres-pref.an-gaina' 
# 'to be disappointed';

# Prefix an + h  + e/i/o > an + O
# In standard Malagasy, no HNA; initial h drops.
# root hemotra 'retreat', manemotra m+an+(h)emotra 'pres-pref.an-hemotra' > 
# m+an+emotra 'to report to a later date';
# root henjana 'stretched', manenjana m+an+(h)enjana 'pres-pref.an-henjana' > 
# m+an+enjana 'to stretch';
# root hety 'scissors', manety m+an+(h)ety 'pres-pref.an-hety' > 
# m+an+ety 'to cut with scissors';
# root hetsika 'action', manetsika m+an+(h)etsika 'pres-pref.an-hetsika' > 
# m+an+etsika 'to move (sth)';
# root hidy 'lock', manidy m+an+(h)idy 'pres-pref.an-hidy' > m+an+idy 'to lock up';
# root hintsana 'shaking', manintsana m+an+(h)intsana 'pres-pref.an-hintsana' > 
# m+an+intsana 'to shake off';
# root hitsaka 'treading upon', manitsaka m+an+(h)itsaka 'pres-pref.an-hitsaka' > 
# m+an+itsaka 'to tread upon';
# root hodina 'turn around', manodina m+an+(h)odina 'pres-pref.an-hodina' > 
# m+an+odina 'to turn around';
# root hoatra 'that-which-surpasses', manoatra m+an+(h)oatra 'pres-pref.an-hoatra' > 
# m+an+oatra 'to surpass, to exceed';
# root hodidina 'contour, surrounding', manodidina m+an+(h)odidina 'pres-pref.an-hodidina' > 
# m+an+odidina 'to surround';
# root hofa 'rent', manofa m+an+(h)ofa 'pres-pref.an-hofa' > 
# m+an+ofa 'to rent';
# root hosotra 'anointment', manosotra m+an+(h)osotra 'pres-pref.an-hosotra' > 
# m+an+osotra 'to anoint';
# root hosy 'trampling', manosy m+an+(h)osy 'pres-pref.an-hosy' > 
# m+an+osy 'to trample';

# Exception root horona 'picking up', mangorona m+an+horona 'pres-pref.an-horona' > 
# m+an+gorona 'to pick up';
# Exception root hovitra 'shaking', mangovitra m+an+hovitra 'pres-pref.an-hovitra' > 
# m+an+govitra 'to tremble, to shake';
# Exception root hozohozo 'weakness', mangozohozo m+an+hozohozo 'pres-pref.an-hozohozo' > 
# m+an+gozohozo 'to be weak';


# Prefix an + l > an + d
# l to d mutation applies.
# root la 'denial, manda m+an+(l>d)a 'pres-pref.an-la' > m+an+da 'to deny';
# root lo '(be)-rotten', active voice mando m+an+(l>d)o 'pres-pref.an-lo' > 
# m+an+do 'to cause to rot';
# root lena 'soaked'; active voice = mandena m+an+(l>d)ena 'pres-prf-lena' > 
# m+an+dena 'to soak';
# root loaka '(be)-with-a-hole-in-it'; active voice mandoaka m+an+(l>d)oaka 'pres-pref.an-loaka'>
#  m+an+doaka
# 'to-make-a-hole-in-(sth)';
# root latsaka '(be)-dropped'; active voice mandatsaka m+an+(l>d)atsaka 'pres-pref.an-latsaka' >
#  m+an+datsaka 'to drop';
# root loko 'paint, colour'; mandoko m+an+(l>d)oko 'pres-pref.an-loko' >
# m+an+doko 'to paint';
# root lositra 'flight, desertion'; mandositra m+an+(l>d)ositra 'pres-pref.an-lositra' >
#  m+an+dositra 'to flee';
# root lentika 'sinking'; mandentika m+an+(l>d)entika 'pres-pref.an-lentika' > 
# m+an+dentika 'to sink';

# Prefix an + n > an + O
# root nenina 'regrets', manenina m+an+nenina 'pres-pref.an-nenina' > 
# m+an+enina 'to regret';
# This seems to be the only example of a root starting with an n!

# Prefix an + p > am + O
# HNA applies.

# root potika '(be)-smashed'; mamotika m+a(n>m)+(p)otika 'pres-pref.an-potika' > 
# m+am+otika 'to smash';
# root potraka '(be)-fallen-off'; active voice (very rare) mamotraka m+a(n>m)+(p)otraka
# 'pres-pref.an-potraka'> m+am+otraka 'to throw down to the ground;
# root petaka '(be)-flat'; active voice intrans mipetaka m+i+petaka 
# 'pres-prefix.i-petaka''to stick';
# root petraka 'deposit, sit'; active voice transitive mametraka m+a(n>m)+(p)etraka
# 'pres-pref.an-petraka'> m+am+etraka 'to put, to deposit';
# root posaka 'revelation'; mamosaka m+a(n>m)+(p)osaka 'pres-pref.an-posaka' >
# m+am+osaka 'to reveal';

# Prefix an + t > an + O
# HNA does not apply; initial consonant drops.
# root tao 'act', manao m+an+(t)ao 'pres-pref.an-tao' > m+an+ao 'to do'
# root tery 'tight', manery m+an+(t)ery 'pres-pref.an-tery' > m+an+ery 'to force'
# root tolaka 'embezzled'; active voice = manolaka m+an+(t)olaka 'pres-prf.an-tolaka' > 
# m+an+olaka 'to embezzle';
# root tapaka '(be)-cut-off'; active voice manapaka m+an+(t)apaka 'pres-pref.an-tapaka' >
# m+an+apaka 'to cut off';

# Prefix an + ts > an + O
# HNA does not apply; initial consonant drops.
# root tsipy 'throw', manipy m+an+(ts)ipy 'pres-pref.an-tsipy' > 
# m+an+ipy 'to throw away';
# root tsentsina 'clogged up'; manentsina m+an+(ts)entsina 'pres-pref.an-tsentina' >
#  m+an+entsina 'to block';
# root tsaingoka '(the-one-who-has)-long-fingers', manaingoka m+an+(ts)aingoka 
# 'pres-pref.an-tsaingoka' > m+an+aingoka 'to nimbly take away';
# root tsangana 'height', manangana m+an+(ts)angana 'pres-pref.an-tsangana' > 
# m+an+angana 'to erect';
# root tsipaka 'kick', manipaka m+an+(ts)ipaka 'pres-pref.an-tsipaka' > 
# m+an+ipaka 'to kick, to reject';
# root tsipika 'underline', manipika m+an+(ts)ipika 'pres-pref.an-tsipika' > 
# m+an+ipika 'to underline';

# Prefix an + v > am + O
# HNA does not apply; initial consonant drops.
# root voky 'full (from eating), mamoky m+a(n>m)+(v)oky 'pres-pref.an-voky' > 
# m+am+oky 'to misinform';
# root vaky 'broken, mamaky m+a(n>m)+(v)aky 'pres-pref.an-vaky' > 
# m+am+aky 'to break, to chop';
# root velona 'alive'; active voice = mamelona m+a(n>m)+(v)elona 'pres-prf.an-velona' > 
# m+am+elona 'to nourish';
# root vory '(be)-assembled'; active voice mamory m+a(n>m)+(v)ory 'pres-pref.an-vory' > 
# m+am+ory 'to assemble, to gather';
# root vita '(be)-done'; active voice mamita m+a(n>m)+(v)ita 'pres-pref.an-vita' > 
# m+am+ita  'to finish"'
# root valy 'answer'; mamaly m+a(n>m)+(v)aly 'pres-pref.an-valy' > 
# m+am+aly 'to answer';
# Note that in these cases v > b does not apply.

# Note that v > b bleeds ICDeletion in
# root voly 'plant', prefix an + v mamboly m+a(n>m)+(v>b)oly 'pres-pref.an-voly' > 
# m+am+boly 'to plant';
# root voraka 'bloated', prefix an + v mamboraka m+a(n>m)+(v>b)oraka 'pres-pref.an-voraka' > 
# m+am+boraka 'to divulge';
# Note that in this case v > b applies (applicable only with a very limited set of words).

# Prefix an + z  > an + d + z
# Mutation z > dz written j
# root zera 'fall', mandzera m+an+d+zera 'pres-pref.an-epenthetic.d-zera' > 
# manjera in writing 'to thrown down';
# root zaitra 'sewing'; manjaitra /m+an+d+zaitra/ 'pres-prf.an-epenthetic.d-zaitra''to sew';
# root zaka 'which-can-be-supported'; manjaka / m+an+d+zaka/ 'pres-pref.an-ep.d-zaka''to reign';
# root zanaka 'progeny', manjanaka /m+an+d+zanaka/ 'pres-pref.an-ep.d-zanaka''to colonise';
# root zary 'existing, suitable', manjary /m+an+d+zary/ 'pres-pref.an-ep.d-zary''to become';
# root zavona 'fog', manjavona /m+an+d+zavona/ 'pres-pref.an-ep.d-zavona''to disappear';

# Note that HNA must apply before ICDeletion, as in the following cases:

# prefix an + f > am + O
# root fetra 'limit', mametra m+a(n>m)+(f)etra 'pres-pref.an-fetra' > 
# m+am+etra 'to limit';
# root feno 'full'(vs empty); active voice mameno m+a(n>m)+(f)eno 'pres-prf.an-feno' >
# m+am+eno 'to fill up';
# root foy 'given-up'; active voice = mamoy m+a(n>m)+(f)oy 'pres-prf.an-foy' > 
# m+am+oy 'to abandon';
# root fantatra '(be)-known'; mamantatra m+a(n>m)+(f)antatra 'pres-prf.an-fantatra' > 
# m+am+antatra 'to try to find out about, to guess';


# Prefix an + h  + a [= + bk - hi ] > an + g + a

# Root halatra 'theft', mangalatra m+an+(h>g)alatra 'pres-pref.an-halatra' >
# m+an+galatra 'to steal';
# Root hataka 'request', mangataka m+an+(h>g)ataka 'pres-pref.an-hataka' > 
# m+an+gataka 'to request';

# prefix an + p > am + O
# root petaka 'sticking', mametaka m+a(n>m)+(p)etaka 'pres-pref.an-petaka' > 
# m+am+etaka 'to stick, to put';
# root potika '(be)-smashed'; mamotika m+a(n>m)+(p)otika 'pres-pref.an-potika' > 
# m+am+otika 'to smash';
# root petraka 'deposit'; active voice transitive mametraka m+a(n>m)+(p)etraka 
#'pres-prf.an-petraka' > m+am+etraka 'to put, to deposit';


# Strenghtening of Initial Consonant of Root/Stem:
# in the case of liquids { l, r } and sibilants { z but NOT s --given constraint below}

# A. l > d fortition:
# Prefix an + l mandeha m+an+(l>d)eha 'to go' > m+an+deha, where de carries the stress

# root latsaka '(be)-dropped'; active voice mandatsaka m+an+(l>d)atsaka 'pres-pref.an-latsaka' >
# m+an+datsaka 'to drop';
# root lena 'soaked'; active voice = mandena m+an+(l>d)ena 'pres-prf.an-lena' > 
# m+an+dena 'to soak';
# root loaka '(be)-with-a-hole-in-it'; active voice mandoaka m+an+(l>d)oaka  
# 'pres-pref.an-loaka' > m+an+doaka 'to-make-a-hole-in-(sth)';
# root re 'be-heard (perception)'; active voice mandre m+an+d+re 'pres-pref.an-ep.d-re''to hear'
# root resy '(be)-vanquished, (be)-defeated'; mandresy m+an+d+resy 'pres-pref.an-ep.d-resy''to defeat';

# B. r > dr fortition:
# Prefix an + r mandrovitra m+an+d+rovitra 'to tear up', where ro carries stress
# from Add-On.txt document:
# Root raraka '(be)-spilled'; active voice mandraraka m+an+d+raraka 'to spill'
# Root rakotra '(be)-covered-with'; active voice transitive mandrakotra 
# m+an+d+rakotra 'pres-prf-epenthetic.d-rakotra''(to)-cover'

# C. h > g fortition:
# Prefix an + h  + a [= + bk - hi ] > an + g + a
# Root halatra 'theft', mangalatra m+an+(h>g)alatra > m+an+galatra 'to steal';

# D. z > dz affrication:
# Prefix an + z mandzaitra m+an+d+zaitra 'to sew', where za carries stress


# However, constraint C.1 [ + voi] C.2 [ - voi] V [ + voi] applies

# Unvoiced initial consonant drop:
# prefix an + s manasa m+an+(s)asa 'pres-pref.an-sasa' 'to wash', 
# where s of sasa = [ - voice ];
# root simba '(be)-destroyed'; active voice manimba m+an+(s)imba 'pres-prf.an-simba'
# 'to destroy deliberately', where again s of simba  = [ - voice ];
# prefix an + ts manipy m+an+(ts)ipy 'pres-pref.an-tsipy''to throw out',
# where ts of tsipy = [ - voice ];
# prefix an + t manery m+an+(t)ery 'pres-pref.an-tery''to coerce', 
# where t of tery = [ - voice ].


# Initial Consonant of Root/Stem Deletion --or ICDeletion
# in the environment C.1 [ + voi] + C.2 [ - voi] V [ + voi], where + = boundary

# Prefix an + f > am + O
# root fetra 'limit', mametra m+a(n>m)+(f)etra 'pres-pref.an-fetra' > m+am+etra 'to limit', 
# where C.2 = f [ - voice ].
# root folaka "(be)-bent'; active voice mamolaka m+a(n>m)+(f)olaka 'pres-pref.an-folaka' > 
# m+am+olaka 'to bend', where again C.2 = f [ - voice ].


# Prefix an + p > am + O
# root petaka 'sticking', mametaka m+a(n>m)+(p)etaka 'pres-pref.an-petaka' > 
# m+am+etaka 'to stick, to put', where C.2 = p [ - voice ];
# root posaka 'revelation'; mamosaka m+a(n>m)+(p)osaka 'pres-pref.an-posaka' >
# m+am+osaka 'to reveal' where C.2 = p [ - voice ];

# Prefix an + k > an + O
# root kaikitra 'bite', manaikitra m+an+(k)aikitra 'pres-pref.an-kaikitra' > 
# m+an+aikitra 'to bite', where C.2 = k [ - voice ].

# Prefix an + ts > an + O
# root tsipy 'throw', manipy m+an+(ts)ipy 'pres-pref.an-tsipy' 'to throw away', 
# where C.2 = ts [ - voice ].


# Note standard Malagasy tends to be h-dropping (contrary to some regional dialects):
# root hadino '(be)-forgotten'; active voice manadino m+an+(h)adino > 
# m+an+adino 'to forget';
# root haja 'politeness'; manaja m+an+(h)aja > m+an+aja 'to show deference';
# root hafatra 'message'; manafatra m+an+(h)afatra > m+an+afatra 'to send a message';
# root hantona 'suspension'; manantona m+an+(h)atona > m+an+atona 'to suspend';



# Alternation past tense n (past.active) vs past tense no (past.passive):

# The emergence of the unattested form 'nohita' or 'nohitana', for example, 
# in Keenan (2000) in Formal Issues in Austronesian Linguistics, eds. Ileana Paul,
# Vivianne Philips and Lisa Travis, 27-47. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic
# Press suggests that (i) there is a lack of distinction between a root and a stem in

# certain analyses and that (ii) in the same analyses, there appears a zero morpheme
# prefix ø, which would be part of a circumfix 'ø...(i/a)na' surrounding either
# a root or a stem --indiscriminately.

# The above of course does not take into account the relevant environment for a root,
# i.e. in particular, that a root usually describes an AUTONOMOUS EVENT, whereas a
# stem refers to a DELIBERATE kind of ACTIVITY; what obscures this correlation is
# the non-recognition of the passive voice past tense-marker prefix 'no', part of
# the circumfix 'no...ina' in addition to the passive voice future tense-marker 'ho',
# part of the circumfix 'ho...ina'; given those two forms, it is predictable that
# a zero morpheme ø, part of a circumfix 'ø...ina' would soon be posited somewhere
# along the line.

# Typically a root does not comprise a prefix at all --even less, a zero morpheme ø--  
# and the epenthetic 'na' comes into play in introducing the relevant EXPERIENCER/AGENT phrase 
# in the genitive; this contrasts with a stem, which usually comprises a zero morpheme ø,
#  part of the circumfix 'ø...ina', where suffix 'ina' introduces the AGENT in the genitive case.
# Consult the beginning of online document 'Malagasy syntax & semantics:
# Passive affixes - ESRC-OX-05-CR106/204'.


# To understand the nature of the problem, we need to look at the two different forms
# n = past tense only (active voice prefix an or prefix i/a is separate) vs 
# no = past tense + nonDURATIVE.aspect(= the equivalent active voice prefix an 
# is totally absent from the passive form);
# alternation future tense h (future.active) vs future tense ho (future.passive)
# h = future tense only (active voice prefix an or prefix i/a is separate) vs 
# ho = future tense + aspect (= the equivalent of the active voice prefix an is 
# totally absent from the passive form); indeed note that forms no/ho entail 
# DELIBERATE/INTENTIONAL ACTIVITY: thus

# ungrammatical:
  nohita (0! 0 0 0)
# 'was seen';
# where the prefix no past.tense is supposed to represent the nonexistent active
# voice prefix an; recall that the active voice form equivalent to 'to see' is mahita, 
# which can be analysed as ma-hita and NOT mangita m+an+(h>g)ita 'pres-prefix.an-hita'
# 'to see' or manita m+an+(h)ita 'pres-prefix.an-hita'; these two forms do not exist
# in Malagasy;

# Example velatra;
# root velatra 'width'; mamelatra m+a(n>m)+(v)elatra 'pres-pref.an-root.velatra' > 
# m+am+elatra 'to spread out'; 
# passive 1 imperative velaro velar+o 'stem.velar-suffix.o'
# '(let.sth)-be.spread.out-by.you'; 
# passive 1 indicative velarina velar+ina 'stem.vela-suffix.ina''be-spread'
# '(that-which)-is-usually-spread-out'or '(that-which)-is-being-spread-out'; 

# passive 1 past tense indicative novelarina no+velar+ina 'past.passive.nonDURATIVE-
# stem.velar-suffix.ina''was-spread-out'; note the absence of a prefix i or an 
# after past tense-marker no.passive 1 future tense indicative hovelarina ho+velar+ina
#  'future.passive.nonDURATIVE-velar-suffix.ina''will-be-spread-out'; 
# note the absence of a prefix i or an after future tense-marker ho;
# also note that with no.passive the THEME is thoroughly affected;

# alternative passive 1 indicative avelatra a+velatra 'a.passive-root.velatra'
# 'be-spread''(that-which)-is-usually-spread-out-with-only-the-inital-impulse-provided'
# or '(that-which)-is-being-spread-out-with-only-the-initial-impulse-provided'; 
# note the presence of the prefix a; also note that with a.passive the THEME is 
# only affected initially;

# passive 1 alternative past tense navelatra n+a+velatra 'past.tense.active.voice-
# a.passive-root.velatra-with-only-the-inital-impulse-provided'; note the presence 
# of the prefix a after the tense-marker;
# passive 1 alternative future tense havelatra h+a+velatra 'future.tense.active.voice-
# a.passive-root.velatra-with-only-the-inital-impulse-provided'; note the presence of
# the prefix a after the tense-marker;

# passive 2 imperative; amelaro a(n>m)+(v)elar+o 'prf.an.DURATIVE-stem.velar-suffix.o' > 
# am+elar+o (let-Beneficiary-Oblique)-be-spread-out'; passive 2 indicative amelarana 
# a(n>m)+(v)elar+ana 'prf.an.DURATIVE-stem.velar-suffix.ana' > am+elar+ana 
# '(Beneficiary-Oblique)-be-spread-out'; 

# passive 2 past tense namelarana n+a(n>m)+(v)elar+ana 'past.tense.active.voice.-
# prf.an.DURATIVE-stem.velar-suffix.ana'; note the presence of the prefix an after 
# the tense-marker;
# passive 2 future tense hamelarana h+a(n>m)+(v)elar+ana 'future.tense.active.voice
# -prf.an.DURATIVE-stem.velar-suffix.ana' > h+am+elar+ana ;
# note the presence of the prefix an after the tense-marker;

# Root velatra 'width'; active voice mivelatra m+i+root.velatra 'to spread out'
# past tense nivelatra  n+i+velatra 'past.tense.active-prf.i-velatra''was-spread-out'
# note the presence of the prefix i after the tense-marker;
# future tense hivelatra  h+i+velatra 'future.tense.active-prf.i-velatra''will-spread-out'
# note the presence of the prefix i after the tense-marker.


# Example halatra 'theft';
# root halatra 'theft'; mangalatra m+an+(h>g)alatra 'pres-pref.an-root.halatra' > 
# m+an+galatra 'to steal'; 
# passive 1 imperative angalaro an+galar+o 'prf.an-stem.galar-suffix.o'
# '(let-sth)-be-stolen-by.you'; 
# passive 1 indicative angalarina an+galar+ina 'prf.an-stem.galar-suffix.ina'
# '(the-one-who/that-which)
# -be-usually-stolen' or '(the-one-who/that-which-is)-being-stolen'; 

# passive 1 past tense indicative nangalarina n+an+galar+ina 'past.tense.active-prf.an
# -stem.galar-suffix.ina';

# passive 1 future tense indicative hangalarina h+an+galar+ina 'future.tense.active
# -prf.an-stem.galar-suffix.ina'; note the presence of the prefix an after the tense-marker;
# passive 2 imperative angalaro an+galar+o 'prf.an-stem.galar-by.you'
# '(let-sth)-be-stolen-by.you';
# passive 2 indicative angalarana n+an+galar+ana 'prf.an-stem.galar-suffix.ana'
# '(a-portion-of-sth)-be-stolen' or 'the-manner/circumstances-in-which-sth)-be-stolen'; 


# passive 2 past indicative nangalarana n+an+galar+ana 'past.tense.active-prf.an.DURATIVE-
# stem.galar-suffix.ana''(a-portion-of-sth)-was-stolen' or 'the-manner/circumstances-
# in-which-sth)-was-stolen'; note the presence of the prefix an after the tense-marker;
# passive 2 future indicative hangalarana h+an+galar+ana 'future.tense.active-
# prf.an.DURATIVE-stem.galar-suffix.ana''(a-portion-of-sth)-will.be-stolen' or 
#'the-manner/circumstances-in-which-sth)-will.be-stolen';
# note the presence of the prefix an after the tense-marker;


# Example foana 'empty';
# root foana '(be)-null, void, empty';  active voice manafoana m+ana+foana 
# 'pres-pref.ana-foana''to annul'
# passive 1 imperative foano foan+o 'stem.foan-suffix.o''(let-sth)-be-cancelled-by.you'; 

# passive 1 indicative foanana foan+ana 'stem.foan-suffix.ana''(which-is-usually)-cancelled'
# or '(which)-is-being-cancelled'; 

# alternatively past tense indicative nofoanana no+foan+ana 'past.pass-stem.foan-suffix.ana' 
# 'was-cancelled';
# note the absence of a prefix after tense-marker;
# future tense indicative hofoanana ho+foan+ana 'future.pass-stem.foan-suffix.ana' 
# 'will.be-cancelled';
# note again the absence of a prefix after tense-marker;

# passive 2 imperative anafoano ana+foan+o 'prf.ana-stem.foan-suffix.o''(let-a-portion-of-sth)
# -be-cancelled-by.you'
#  or '(the-instrument/manner/time-at-which-sth)-is-cancelled'; 

# passive 2 indicative anafoanana ana+foan+ana 'pref.ana-stem.foan-suffix.ana'
# '(a-portion-of-sth)-be-cancelled'
# or '(the-instrument/manner/time-at-which-sth)-is-cancelled';

# passive 2 past tense indicative nanafoanana n+ana+foan+ana 'past.active-
# prf.ana-stem.foan-suffix.ana'; note the form n for past and the presence of the prefix ana;

# passive 2 future tense indicative hanafoanana h+ana+foan+ana 'future.active-
# prf.ana-stem.foan-suffix.ana'; note the form h for future and the presence of the prefix ana.


# Example anatra 'advice';
# root anatra 'advice'; transitive active mananatra m+an+root.anatra 'to advise'; 
# passive 1 imperative anaro anar+o 'stem.anar-suffix.o''(let-s.one)-be-advised-by.you'; 
# passive 1 indicative anarina a+anar+ina 'prf.a-stem.anar-suffix.ina''(the-one-who)
# -be-usually-advised-with-only-the initial-step-implemented' or '(the-one-who-is)
# -being-advised with-only-the initial-step-implemented'--with simplification of
# sequence a+anar > anar;

# passive 1 past indicative nanarina n+(a)+anar+ina 'past.active-(prf.a)-stem.anar-
# suffix.ina'; note the virtual presence of the prefix a and the form n for past tense;

# passive 1 future indicative hanarina h+(a)+anar+ina 'future.active-(prf.a)-stem.anar-
# suffix.ina'; note the virtual presence of the prefix a and the form h for future tense;

# passive 2 imperative ananaro an+anar+o 'prf.an-stem.anar-by.you''(let-s.one)-be-advised-by.you'
# passive 2 indicative ananarana an+anar+ana 'prf.an-stem.anar-suffix.ana''(that-which)-be-used-
# to advise';

# passive 2 past tense indicative nananarana n+an+anar+ana 'past.active-prf.an-stem.anar
# -suffix.ana''(that-which)-was-used-to advise';

# passive 2 future tense indicative hananarana h+an+anar+ana 'future.active-prf.an-
# stem.anar-suffix.ana''(that-which)-will.be-used-to advise';

# Root anatra 'advice'; mianatra m+i+anatra 'pres-prf.i-root.anatra''to learn'; 
# passive 1 imperative ianaro i+anar+o 'prf.i-stem.anar-by.you''(let-sth)-be-learnt-by.you'; 
# passive 1 indicative ianarana i+anar+ana 'prf.i-stem.anar-suffix.ana''(that-which)-
# be-usually-learnt' or '(that-which-is)-being-learned';

# passive 1 past indicative nianarana n+i+anar+ana 'past.active-prf.i-stem.anar-suffix.ana'
# 'was-learned'
# passive 1 future indicative hianarana h+i+anar+ana 'future.active-prf.i-stem.anar-suffix.ana'
# 'will.be-learned';

# complex form mampianatra m+amp+i+anatra 'pres-prf.amp-prf.i-root.anatra''to teach'
# complex passive 1 imperative ampianaro amp+i+anar+o 'prf.amp-prf.i-stem.anar-suffix.o'
# '(let-s.one)-be-taught-by.you'; passive 1 indicative ampianarina amp+i+anar+ina 
# 'prf.amp-prf.i-stem.anar-suffix.ina''(the-ones-who/that-which)-be-usually-taught'
# or '(the-one/s-who/that-which-is)-being-taught';

# passive 1 past tense indicative nampianarina n+amp+i+anar+ina 'past.active-prf.amp-prf.i
# -stem.anar-suffix.ina''was-usually-taught' or 'is-being-taught';

# passive 1 future tense indicative hampianarina h+amp+i+anar+ina 'future.active-prf.amp-
# prf.i-stem.anar-suffix.ina''will.be-usually-taught';

# passive 2 indicative ampianarana amp+i+anar+ana 'prf.amp-prf.i-stem.anar-suffix.ana'
# '(the-instrument/circumstances-under-which-sth)-be-usually-taught' or '(the-instrument/
# circumstances-sth)-is-being-taught';

# passive 2 past tense indicative nampianarana n+amp+i+anar+ana 'past.active-prf.amp-prf.i
# -stem.anar-suffix.ana''was-used-to-teach';

# passive 2 future tense indicative hampianarana h+amp+i+anar+ana 'future.active-prf.amp-prf.i
# -stem.anar-suffix.ana''will.be-used-to-teach';


# Root zanaka 'progeny', manjanaka /m+an+d+zanaka/ 'pres-prf.an-epenthetic.d-root.zanaka'
# 'to colonise'; passive 1 imperative zanaho zanah+o 'stem.zanah-suffix.o''(let-s.one/sth)-
# be-colonised-by.you'; passive 1 indicative zanahina zanah+ina 'stem.zanah+suffix.ina'
# '(s.one/sth)-be-usually-colonised' or '(s.one/sth-is)-being-colonised';

# passive 1 past tense indicative nozanahina no+zanah+ina 'past.passive-stem.zanah-suffix.
# ina''was-colonised'; note the past tense form no & absence of a prefix;

# passive 1 future tense indicative hozanahina ho+zanah+ina 'future.passive-stem.zanah-suffix.
# ina''will.be-colonised'; note the future tense form ho & absence of a prefix;

# active voice future indicative hanjanaka /h+an+d+zanaka/ 'fut-prf.an-epenthetic.d-root.zanaka'
# 'will colonise'; note the future tense h & presence of a prefix, i.e. an;

# passive 2 imperative anjanaho /an+d+zanah+o/'prf.an-epenthetic.d-stem.zanah-by.you';
# passive 2 indicative anjanahana /an+d+zanah+ana/'prf.an-epenthetic.d-stem.zanah-suffix.
# ana';

# passive 2 past tense indicative nanjanahana /n+an+d+zanah+ana/'past.active-prf.an-
# epenthetic.d-stem.zanah-suffix.ana''(the-circumstances-in-which-sth)-was-colonised';

# passive 2 future tense indicative hanjanahana /h+an+d+zanah+ana/'future.active-prf.an-
# epenthetic.d-stem.zanah-suffix.ana''(the-circumstances-in-which-sth)will.be-colonised';