# Verb-initial grammars: A multilingual/parallel perspective # ESRC Project RES-000-23-0505 # Oxford University # Charles Randriamasimanana # Malagasy syntax/semantics: # Malagasy verbs of saying - - ESRC-OX-05-CR205. # This document will explore the behaviour of one typical Malagasy verb of saying. # It will transpire that it usually takes complementiser 'fa''that' and that as a # matrix verb, it does not constituent-select the tense on the embedded predicate # and that the complementiser appears to be obligatory in certain environments. # In addition, it is possible in Malagasy to have double passives both on the # matrix as well as the embedded verbs. It is also worth mentioning that in this # language, complementiser 'fa''that' tends to correlate with FACTIVE REPORT --as # typically it combines with FACTIVE root predicates like 'fantatra''be.known'-- # whereas complementiser 'ho' usually shows up on a small clause, i.e. with a non-verbal # predicate and tends to be non-FACTIVE in that it typically triggers a speaker assumption # that the speaker does NOT believe in the truth of whatever is being asserted. # With an intransitive verb embedded under the verb of saying: Nilaza i Paoly fa handeha. # N-i-laza i Paoly fa h-an-(l>)deha. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul comp fut-pref-root.leha. # "Paul said that he would go." # The sentential complement typically occurs to the right of the subject. # We apparently have a VSO word order, where O is a sentential constituent. # The complementizer fa is then obligatory since # Nilaza i Paoly handeha.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably ungrammatical. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. # However also note that the alternative word order VOS --as shown below-- # is also possible. Nilaza i Paoly fa nandeha. # N-i-laza i Paoly fa n-an-(l>)deha. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul comp past-pref-root.leha. # "Paul said that he went (there)." # The sentential complement typically occurs to the right of the subject. # We apparently have a VSO word order, where O is a sentential constituent. # The complementizer fa is then obligatory since # Nilaza i Paoly nandeha.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably ungrammatical. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. # However also note that the alternative word order VOS --as shown below-- # is also possible. Nilaza i Paoly fa mandeha. # N-i-laza i Paoly fa m-an-(l>)deha. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul comp pres-pref-root.leha. # "Paul said that he can walk." # The sentential complement typically occurs to the right of the subject. # The sentential complement typically occurs to the right of the subject. # We apparently have a VSO word order, where O is a sentential constituent. # The complementizer fa is then obligatory since # Nilaza i Paoly mandeha.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably ungrammatical. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the present # tense. Also note the shift in meaning. # However also note that the alternative word order VOS --as shown below-- # is also possible. # Ungrammatical Nilaza i Paoly mandeha.(0! 0 0 0) # N-i-laza i Paoly m-an-(l>)deha. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul pres-pref-root.leha. # "Paul said that he can walk." # Note the absence of comp 'fa'. # This sentence is irretrievably ungrammatical. Nilaza fa handeha i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa h-an-(l>)deha i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp fut-pref-root.leha D.sg Paul . # "Paul said that he would go." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the main # verb. Then the complementizer 'fa' becomes optional: See below. # We apparently have a VOS word order, where O is a sentential constituent. Nilaza handeha i Paoly. # N-i-laza h-an-(l>)deha i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza fut-pref-root.leha D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he would go." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the main # verb. Then the complementizer 'fa' becomes optional: Compare the last # two sentences. # We have a VOS word order, where O is a sentential complement. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. Nilaza fa nandeha i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa n-an-(l>)deha i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp past-pref-root.leha D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he went (there)." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the main # verb. Then the complementizer 'fa' becomes optional: See below. # We apparently have a VOS word order, where O is a sentential constituent. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. Nilaza nandeha i Paoly. # N-i-laza n-an-(l>)deha i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza past-pref-root.leha D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he went (there)." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the main # verb. Then the complementizer 'fa' becomes optional: See above. # We apparently have a VOS word order, where O is a sentential constituent. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. Nilaza fa mandeha i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa m-an-(l>)deha i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp pres-pref-root.leha D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he can walk." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the main # verb. When the complementizer 'fa' is maintained, the sequence remains # fully grammatical. # We apparently have a VOS word order, where O is a sentential constituent. # Ungrammatical Nilaza mandeha i Paoly.(0! 0 0 0) # N-i-laza m-an-(l>)deha i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza pres-pref-root.leha D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he can walk." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the main # verb. When the complementizer 'fa' is dropped, the sequence becomes very # marginally grammatical unless more constituents are added. # Nilaza mandeha any matetika i Paoly. # N-i-laza m-an-(l>)deha any matetika i Paoly. # past-prf-root.say pres-go there often D.sg Paul # "Paul said that he goes there often." Nilaza mandeha any matetika i Paoly. # N-i-laza m-an-(l>)deha any matetika i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza pres-pref-root.leha there often D.sg Paul # "Paul said that he goes there often." # Note the presence of additional constituents. # With a transitive verb embedded under the verb of saying: Nilaza i Paoly fa hividy boky. # N-i-laza i Paoly fa h-i-vidy boky. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul comp fut-prf-root.vidy a book(s). # "Paul said that he would buy a book/books." # The sentential complement typically occurs to the right of the subject. # The complementizer fa is then obligatory since # Nilaza i Paoly hividy boky.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably ungrammatical. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. # Note the presence of comp 'fa'. # The word order is apparently VSO, where O is a sentential constituent. # However also note that the alternative word order VOS is possible. See below. # Ungrammatical Nilaza i Paoly hividy boky.(0! 0 0 0). # N-i-laza i Paoly h-i-vidy boky. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul fut-prf-root.vidy a book(s). # "Paul said that he would buy a book/books." # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. # Note the absence of comp 'fa'. # The word order is apparently VSO, where O is a sentential constituent. Nilaza i Paoly fa nividy boky. # N-i-laza i Paoly fa n-i-vidy boky. # past-prf-root.laza D-sg Paul comp past-prf-root.vidy a book(s). # "Paul said that he bought a book/books." # The sentential complement typically occurs to the right of the subject. # The complementizer fa is then obligatory since # Nilaza i Paoly nividy boky.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably ungrammatical. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. # The word order is apparently VSO, where O is a sentential constituent. # However also note that the alternative word order VOS is possible. See below. # Ungrammatical Nilaza i Paoly nividy boky.(0! 0 0 0). # N-i-laza i Paoly n-i-vidy boky. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul past-prf-root.vidy a book(s). # "Paul said that he bought a book/books." # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. # Note the absence of comp 'fa'. # The word order is apparently VSO, where O is a sentential constituent. Nilaza i Paoly fa mividy boky. # N-i-laza i Paoly fa m-i-vidy boky. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul comp pres-prf-root.vidy a book(s). # "Paul said that he buys books." # The sentential complement typically occurs to the right of the subject. # The complementizer fa is then obligatory since # Nilaza i Paoly mividy boky.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably ungrammatical. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the present # tense. # The word order is apparently VSO, where O is a sentential constituent. # Ungrammatical Nilaza i Paoly mividy boky.(0! 0 0 0). # N-i-laza i Paoly m-i-vidy boky. # past-prf-root.laza D.sg Paul pres-prf-root.vidy a book(s). # "Paul said that he buys books." # Note the absence of comp 'fa'. # The word order is apparently VSO, where O is a sentential constituent. Nilaza fa hividy boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa h-i-vidy boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp fut-prf-root.vidy a book(s) D.sg Paul . # "Paul said that he would buy a book/books." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: See next sequence below. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. # The word order is apparently VOS, where O is a sentential complement. Nilaza hividy boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza h-i-vidy boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza fut-prf-root.vidy a book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he would buy a book/books." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: See sequence above. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. # The word order is apparently VOS, where O is a sentential constituent. Nilaza fa nividy boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa n-i-vidy boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp past-prf-root.vidy a book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he bought a book/books." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: Compare with sequence below. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. # Note the past tense on both the matrix verb and the embedded verb: This # configuration characterizes an adjunct (vs an argument) in Malagasy. # The word order is apparently VOS, where O would be a sentential constituent. # However if the embedded structure 'fa nividy boky' is an adjunct to # the verb 'nilaza''past-say', it canNOT be a sentential object! Nilaza nividy boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza n-i-vidy boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza past-prf-root.vidy a book(s) D.sg Paul . # "Paul said that he bought a book/books." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: Compare with sequence above. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. # Note the past tense on both the matrix verb and the embedded verb: This # configuration characterizes an adjunct (vs an argument) in Malagasy. # This suggests that the embedded sentential constituent 'n-i-vidy boky' # 'past-prf-root.buy books' is NOT a sentential object! Nilaza fa mividy boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa m-i-vidy boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp pres-prf-root.vidy a book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he buys books." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. This gives the sequence a Colloquial Malagasy flavour. # The complementizer fa is NOT optional: See sequence below. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the present # tense. # Ungrammatical Nilaza mividy boky i Paoly.(0! 0 0 0) # N-i-laza m-i-vidy boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza pres-prf-root.vidy a book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he buys books." # The sentential complement canNOT occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb --in the absence of any additional constituents. # The complementizer fa is therefore obligatory: Compare with sequence # immediately above. Nilaza fa hividy ilay boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa h-i-vidy ilay boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp fut-prf-root.vidy DX.sg book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he would buy the (previous mention) book." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: See next sequence below. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. # Note the singular on 'book' as required by the singular DX-sg 'ilay'. Nilaza hividy ilay boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza h-i-vidy ilay boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza fut-prf-root.vidy DX.sg book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he would buy the (previous mention) book." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: See sequence above. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the future # tense. # Note the singular on 'book' as required by the singular DX-sg 'ilay'. Nilaza fa nividy ilay boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza fa n-i-vidy ilay boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza comp past-prf-root.vidy DX.sg a book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he bought the (previous mention) book." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: See sequence below. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. # Note the past tense on both the matrix verb and the embedded verb: This # configuration characterizes an adjunct (vs an argument) in Malagasy. # Note the singular on 'book' as required by the singular DX-sg 'ilay'. Nilaza nividy ilay boky i Paoly. # N-i-laza n-i-vidy ilay boky i Paoly. # past-prf-root.laza past-prf-root.vidy DX.sg a book(s) D.sg Paul. # "Paul said that he bought the (previous mention) book." # The sentential complement can occur immediately adjacent to the matrix # verb. # The complementizer fa is then optional: Compare with sequence above. # Note that the embedded verb can be but does not have to be in the past # tense. # Note the past tense on both the matrix verb and the embedded verb: This # configuration characterizes an adjunct (vs an argument) in Malagasy. # Note the singular on 'book' as required by the singular DX-sg 'ilay'. # Ungrammatical Nilaza (fa) mividy ilay boky i Paoly.(0! 0 0 0) # N-i-laza (fa) m-i-vidy ilay boky i Paoly # past-prf-root.laza (comp) pres-prf-root.vidy DX.sg boky D.sg Paoly # "Paul said that he usually buys the (previous mention) book." # Incompatibiligy between HABITUAL aspect on present-tense 'mividy" and # PUNCTUAL aspect on the complement of embedded verb headed by DX-sg 'ilay'. # Matrix verb in the passive voice: Nolazain'i Paoly fa hividy ilay boky izy. # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly fa h-i-vidy ilay boky izy. # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paoly comp fut-prf-root.vidy DX book s/he # "Paul said that he (= Paul) would buy the (previous mention) book." # This is the preferred interpretation in the absence of an elaborate # discourse context. # Note that the complementizer fa is obligatory: Compare with sequence below. # Note the emergence of the obligatory pronominal izy 's/he' since # Nolazain'i Paoly fa hividy ilay boky.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably # ungrammatical. # No-laza-in' i Paoly fa h-ividy ilay boky. # past.pass-root.say-pass.by D.sg Paoly comp fut-prf-root.buy DX boky # Lit. "was said by Paul that he will buy the (previous mention) book." # Note that the embedded verb can be in the future tense, but does not have # to be. # Ungrammatical Nolazain'i Paoly hividy ilay boky.(0! 0 0 0) # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly h-i-vidy ilay boky. # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paoly fut-prf-root.vidy DX book # "Paul said that (= Paul) would buy the (previous mention) book." # Note that the complementizer fa is obligatory: See sequence above. # Note the absence of the subject pronoun 'izy' 's/he'. Nolazain'i Paoly fa nividy ilay boky izy. # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly fa n-i-vidy ilay boky izy. # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paoly comp past-prf-root.vidy DX book s/he # "Paul said that he (= Paul) bought the (previous mention) book." # This is the preferred interpretation in the absence of an elaborate # discourse context. # Note that the complementizer fa is obligatory: Compare with sequence below. # Note the emergence of the obligatory pronominal izy 's/he' since # Nolazain'i Paoly fa nividy ilay boky.(0! 0 0 0) is irretrievably # ungrammatical. # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly fa n-ividy ilay boky. # past.pass-root.say-pass.ina.by D.sg Paoly comp past-prf-root.vidy DX boky # Lit. "was said by Paul that he bought the (previous mention) book." # Note that the embedded verb can be in the past tense, but does not have # to be. # Ungrammatical Nolazain'i Paoly nividy ilay boky.(0! 0 0 0) # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly fa n-i-vidy ilay boky. # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paoly comp past-prf-root.vidy DX boky # Lit. "Was said by Paul (= Paul) bought the (previous mention) book." # "Paul said that he (= Paul) bought the (previous mention) book." # Note that the complementizer fa is obligatory: See sequence above. # Note the absence of the obligatory pronominal izy 's/he'. # Double Passive involving the matrix verb of saying & the embedded verb: Nolazain'i Paoly fa hovidiny ilay boky. # No- laza-in(a) i Paoly fa ho- vid(i)- i(na)- ny # past.pass-stem.laza- pass.ina.by D.sg Paul comp fut.pass-stem.vidi-pass.ina-by.him/her # ilay boky. # DX-sg a book(s). # Lit. "Was said by Paul that will be bought by him the (previous mention) # book." "Paul said that he (= Paul) would buy the (previous mention) book." # This is the preferred interpretation in the absence of an elaborate # discourse context. # Note that the complementizer fa is optional: See sequence below. # Note the emergence of the clitic pronoun -ny 'by-him/her' attached to the # lower passive voice verb. # Note that the embedded verb can be in the future tense, but does not have # to be. Nolazain'i Paoly hovidina ilay boky. # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly ho- vid(i)- ina # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paul fut.pass-stem.vidi-pass.ina # ilay boky. # DX.sg a book(s). # Lit. "Was said by Paul that will be bought the (previous mention) # book." "Paul said that (he = Paul) would buy the (previous mention) book." # This is the preferred interpretation in the absence of an elaborate # discourse context. # Note that the complementizer fa is optional: See sequence above. # Note the absence of the clitic pronoun -ny 'by-him/her' on the lower # passive voice verb. # Note that there is no coreferential pronoun in the embedded clause. # Note that the embedded verb can be in the future tense, but does not have # to be. Nolazain'i Paoly fa novidiny ilay boky. # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly fa no- vid(i)- i(na)- ny # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paul comp past.pass-stem.vidi-pass.ina- by.him/her # ilay boky. # DX.sg a book(s). # Lit. "Was said by Paul that was bought by him the (previous mention) # book." "Paul said that he (= Paul) bought the (previous mention) book." # This is the preferred interpretation in the absence of an elaborate # discourse context. # Note that the complementizer fa is optional: Compare with sequence below. # Note the emergence of the clitic pronoun -ny 'by-him/her' attached to the # lower passive voice verb. # Note that the embedded verb can be in the past tense, but does not have # to be. Nolazain'i Paoly novidiny ilay boky. # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly no- vid(i)- i(na)- ny # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paul past.pass-stem.vidi-pass.ina-by.him/her # ilay boky. # DX-sg a book(s). # Lit. "Was said by Paul that was bought by him the (previous mention) # book." "Paul said that he (= Paul) bought the (previous mention) book." # This is the preferred interpretation in the absence of an elaborate # discourse context. # Note that the complementizer fa is optional: Compare with sequence above. # Note the emergence of the clitic pronoun -ny 'by-him/her' attached to the # lower passive voice verb. # Note that the embedded verb can be in the past tense, but does not have # to be. # Ungrammatical Nolazain'i Paoly novidina ilay boky.(0! 0 0 0) # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly no- vid(i)- ina # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paul past.pass-stem.vidi-pass.ina # ilay boky. # DX-sg a book(s). # Lit. "Was said by Paul that was bought the (previous mention) # book." "Paul said that he bought the (previous mention) book." # Note the absence of the clitic pronoun -ny 'by-him/her' on the embedded # verb. # Ungrammatical Nolazain'i Paoly fa vidiny ilay boky. (0! 0 0 0) # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly fa vid(i)- i(na)-ny ilay boky. # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paul comp stem.vidi-pass.ina-by.him/her DX.sg a book(s) # Lit. "Was said by Paul that was bought the (previous mention) # book." "Paul said that he usually buys the (previous mention) book." # Incompatibility between HABITUAL aspect accompanying the headverb # 'vidiany' and its complement 'ilay boky' PUNCTUAL aspect. # Note the presence of the clitic pronoun -ny 'by-him/her' on lower verb. # Whether the complementizer 'fa' shows up or not does not affect the # grammaticality status of the sequence. # Ungrammatical Nolazain'i Paoly vidiny ilay boky. (0! 0 0 0) # No-laza-in(a) i Paoly vid(i)- i(na)-ny ilay boky. # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by D.sg Paul stem.vidi-pass.ina-by.him/her DX.sg a book(s) # Lit. "Was said by Paul that was bought the (previous mention) # book." "Paul said that he usually buys the (previous mention) book." # Incompatibility between HABITUAL aspect accompanying the headverb # 'vidiny' and its complement 'ilay boky' PUNCTUAL aspect. # Note the presence of the clitic pronoun -ny 'by-him/her' on lower verb. # Whether the complementizer 'fa' shows up or not does not affect the # grammaticality status of the sequence. # Some consequences from the linguistic data presented above: # Verb of saying 'milaza' does not strictly subcategorize for an embedded # clause with the complementizer 'ho' in the following sequence. This # suggests that the particle 'ho' is inserted into the sequence: Nilaza an'ilay akoho ho novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity Rabe. # N-i-laza an'ilay akoho ho no- vono- i(na)- ko t-amin' ity antsy ity Rabe. # past-prf-root.laza acc DX.sg chicken comp pass-stem.vono-pass.ina-by-me perf-with this knife this Rabe # This is adapted from Ileana Paul (1998: 52, ex 7) # where 'ho' is analyzed as a complementizer. One major problem with such # an analysis is that typically comp ho co-occurs with a STATIVE predicate, # which is certainly not the case with 'no-vono-i-ko' literally 'was- # deliberately-killed-by-me' "Rabe said this chicken to have been killed # by me with this knife."(Paul 1998). # A typical example of comp ho with a STATIVE predicate: Milaza azy ho mahay i Paoly. # M-i-laza azy ho ma-hay i Paoly. # M-i-laza azy ho ma-hay i Paoly. # pres-prf-root.laza him comp STATIVEpref-root.hay D-sg Paul # where the accusative pronoun 'azy' is coreferential with 'i Paoly.' # "Paul considers himself intelligent." # As a direct result, it follows that 'azy' must be in the embedded clause, # and NOT raised: There is no Raising-to-DO, as assumed in Paul (1998)! # Note that in Malagasy at least the assumption is that the speaker does not # believe in the truth of the embedded proposition. Hence a non-FACTIVE # REPORT reading for this type of construction. # Four different variations on the above sequence: # Version A: Comp fa & both matrix and embedded verb in the active voice. Nilaza Rabe fa namono an'ilay akoho tamin'ity antsy ity aho. # N-i-laza Rabe fa n-a(n>m)-(v)ono an ilay akoho t-amin' # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past-prf-root.vono acc DX.sg chicken perf-with # ity antsy ity aho. # DX.sg knife DX.sg I # "Rabe said that I the speaker killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # Nilaza is a FACTIVE REPORT predicate with general comp 'fa'. # Comp 'fa' can be replaced with comp 'hoe' = quote ... unquote. # However, it is not possible to replace general comp 'fa' with a comp 'ho': # Nilaza Rabe ho namono (an) ilay akoho tamin'ity antsy ity aho. # This last sequence is simply not grammatical. Nilaza Rabe fa namono ilay akoho tamin'ity antsy ity aho. # N-i-laza Rabe fa n-a(n>m)-(v)ono ilay akoho t-amin' # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past-prf-root.vono DX.sg chicken perf-with # ity antsy ity aho. # DX.sg knife DX.sg I # "Rabe said that I the speaker killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # Note the absence of the accusative particle 'an'. Nilaza Rabe hoe namono an'ilay akoho tamin'ity antsy ity aho. # N-i-laza Rabe hoe n-a(n>m)-(v)ono an ilay akoho t-amin' # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past-prf-root.vono acc DX.sg chicken perf-with # ity antsy ity aho. # DX.sg knife DX.sg I # "Rabe said: 'I the speaker killed the (previous mention) chicken with this # knife'." # Nilaza is a FACTIVE REPORT predicate with general comp 'fa'. # Here comp 'fa' has been replaced with comp 'hoe' = quote ... unquote. # Nilaza Rabe hoe namono ilay akoho tamin'ity antsy ity aho. # N-i-laza Rabe hoe n-a(n>m)-(v)ono ilay akoho t-amin' # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past-prf-root.vono DX.sg chicken perf-with # ity antsy ity aho. # DX.sg knife DX.sg I # "Rabe said: 'I the speaker killed the (previous mention) chicken with this # knife'." # Note the absence of the accusative particle 'an'. # Ungrammatical Nilaza Rabe ho namono an'ilay akoho tamin'ity antsy ity aho.(0! 0 0 0) # N-i-laza Rabe ho n-a(n>m)-(v)ono an ilay akoho # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past-prf-root.vono acc DX.sg chicken # t-amin' ity antsy ity aho. # perf-with DX.sg knife DX.sg I # "Rabe said that I killed the (previous mention) chicken with this knife." # This sequence is irretrievably ungrammatical. # Note comp 'ho' co-occurring with non-STATIVE predicate 'namono' 'killed'. # Typically comp 'ho' requires a STATIVE predicate. # Version B: Comp fa & only the embedded verb is in the passive voice. Nilaza Rabe fa novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # N-i-laza Rabe fa no- vono-i(na)- ko # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina-by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with DX-sg knife DX-sg DX-sg chicken. # Lit. "Rabe said that was killed by me with this knife the (previous mention) # chicken.""Rabe said that I the speaker killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # Where the morpheme -i- represents the passive suffix 'ina'. # Nilaza Rabe hoe novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # Nilaza is a FACTIVE REPORT predicate with general comp 'fa' = 'that'. # Comp 'fa' can be replaced with comp 'hoe' = quote ... unquote. # However, it is not possible to replace general comp 'fa' with a comp 'ho'. Nilaza Rabe hoe novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # N-i-laza Rabe hoe no- vono-i(na)- ko # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina-by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with DX.sg knife DX.sg DX.sg chicken. # Lit. "Rabe said that was killed by me with this knife the (previous mention) # chicken." "Rabe said: 'I the speaker killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife'." # Where the morpheme -i- represents the passive suffix 'ina'. # Nilaza is a FACTIVE REPORT predicate with comp 'hoe' = 'quote...unquote' # since comp 'fa' can be replaced with comp 'hoe' = quote ... unquote. # Ungrammatical Nilaza Rabe ho novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho.(0! 0 0 0) # N-i-laza Rabe ho no- vono-i(na)- ko # past-prf-root.laza Rabe comp past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina-by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with DX.sg knife DX.sg DX.sg chicken. # "Rabe said that I the speaker killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # Where the morpheme -i- represents the passive suffix 'ina'. # Note comp 'ho' with non-STATIVE predicate 'novonoiko' 'was-killed-by-me'. # Version C: Optional comp fa & both the matrix and the embedded verb are # in the passive. # Nilaza is a FACTIVE REPORT predicate with optional comp 'fa' 'that' or a # non-FACTIVE REPORT predicate with optional past tense 'ho' in addition to # past tense 'no' on the other verb. NolazaindRabe fa novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # No- laza-in(a)- d- Rabe fa no- vono- i(na)- ko # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina-d-by.Rabe comp past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina-by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with D.sg knife D.sg DX.sg chicken # Lit."Was said by Rabe that was killed by me with this knife the (p. m.) # chicken." "Rabe said that I killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # Note the presence of comp 'fa' between the two passives. # 'no...in''pass...pass' is the discontinous form of passive on the first # verb; 'no...i(na)' is the discontinuous form for the second verb. NolazaindRabe novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # No- laza- in(a)- d- Rabe no- vono- i(na)- ko # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina-d-by.Rabe past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina-by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with D-sg knife D-sg DX-sg chicken # Lit."Was alleged by Rabe that was killed by me with this knife the (p. m.) # chicken." "Rabe alleged that I killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # This is a Colloquial or Regional variety of Malagasy. # Note the absence of comp 'fa' between the two passives. # Note the absence of future tense 'ho': In Colloquial Malagasy & in certain # dialects, it is common to drop a non-stressed particle 'ho'. # 'no...in''pass...pass' is the discontinous form of passive on the first # verb; 'no...i(na)' is the discontinuous form for the second verb. NolazaindRabe ho novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # NolazaindRabe ho novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # No- laza-in(a)- d- Rabe ho no- vono- i(na)- ko # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina-d-by.Rabe fut past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina- by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with D-sg knife D-sg DX-sg chicken # Lit."Was alleged by Rabe that was killed by me with this knife the (p. m.) # chicken." "Rabe alleged that I killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # This is a Colloquial or Regional variety of Malagasy. # Note the presence of future tense 'ho' between the two passives. # d in front of Rabe is epenthetic. # 'no...in''pass...pass' is the discontinous form of passive on the first # verb; 'no...i(na)' is the discontinuous form for the second verb. NolazaindRabe novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # NolazaindRabe novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # No- laza-in(a)- d- Rabe no- vono- i(na)- ko # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina-d-by.Rabe past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina- by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with D.sg knife D.sg DX.sg chicken # Lit."Was alleged by Rabe that was killed by me with this knife the (p. m.) # chicken." "Rabe alleged that I killed the (previous mention) chicken # with this knife." # Note the absence of future tense 'ho' between the two passives. In certain # Malagasy dialects the unstressed 'ho' reduces to h and is usually dropped. # 'no...in''pass...pass' is the discontinous form of passive on the first # verb; 'no...i(na)' is the discontinuous form for the second verb. # A different predicate 'nilaza' with an embedded ho = future tense-marker. # The inserted element 'ho' on the embedded verb is analyzed as # a tense-marker. # Nilaza is no longer a FACTIVE REPORT predicate and now introduces the # non-FACTIVE REPORT feature signalled by future tense 'ho' + past tense 'no' # on the embedded verb. # Since 'ho' is not a comp, the restriction on its quasi-obligatory # co-occurrence with a STATIVE predicate no longer holds. NolazaindRabe novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # No-laza-in(a)-dRabe no- vono- i(na)- ko # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina-by.Rabe past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina- by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with DX.sg knife DX.sg DX.sg chichen # Lit "Was alleged by Rabe that was killed by me with this knife the (previous # mention) chicken." "Rabe alleged that I killed the chicken with this knife." # This is a Colloquial or Regional variety of Malagasy. # 'no...in''pass...pass' is the discontinous form of passive on the first # verb; 'no...i(na)' is the discontinuous form for the second verb. NolazaindRabe ho novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # No- laza- in(a)- d-Rabe ho no- vono-i(na)- ko # past.pass-stem.laza-say-pass.ina.by-d-Rabe fut past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina- by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with DX.sg knife DX.sg DX-sg chicken # Lit."Was alleged by Rabe that was killed by me with this knife the (previous # mention) chicken." "Rabe alleged that I killed the (previous mention) # chicken with this knife." # Note the presence of future tense 'ho' between the two passives. # d in front of Rabe is epenthetic. # 'no...in''pass...pass' is the discontinous form of passive on the first # verb; 'no...i(na)' is the discontinuous form for the second verb. # Ungrammatical NolazaindRabe ho novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho.(0! 0 0 0) # NolazaindRabe ho novonoiko tamin'ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # No- laza- in(a)- d-Rabe ho no- vono- i(na)- ko # past.pass-stem.laza-pass.ina.by-d-Rabe comp past.pass-stem.vono-pass.ina- by.me # t-amin' ity antsy ity ilay akoho. # perf-with DX.sg knife DX.sg DX-sg chicken # Lit."Was alleged by Rabe that was killed by me with this knife the (previous # mention) chicken." "Rabe alleged that I killed the (previous mention) # chicken with this knife." # Note the presence of comp 'ho' between the two passives. Now comp 'ho' # usually requires a STATIVE predicate in the embedded clause. # Note that 'd' in front of Rabe is epenthetic. # 'no...in''pass...pass' is the discontinous form of passive on the first # verb; 'no...i' is the discontinuous form for the second verb. ## Distinction between FACTIVE comp 'fa' vs non-FACTIVE comp 'ho'. Manao azy ho kinga i Paoly. # M-anao azy ho kinga i Paoly. # pres-do him comp smart D.sg Paul # "Paul considers himself smart." # Speaker assumption: Paul is NOT smart at all! # This speaker assumption is triggered by non-FACTIVE REPORT comp 'ho'. Fantatro fa kinga i Paoly. # Fantatr- o fa kinga i Paoly. # root.fantatra-to.me comp smart D.sg Paul # Lit. "Is known to me that Paul is smart." "I know that Paul is smart." # Note that 'fantatra' 'be-known' is a root verb, which usually does not # take any affix. # Speaker believes that Paul is really smart. # FACTIVE REPORT comp 'fa' does not contradict FACTIVE verb 'fantatro' # '(it) is known-to-me'. # Ungrammatical Mahafantatra ny gidro ho fotsy i Bema.(0! 0 0 0) # M- aha-fantatra ny gidro ho fotsy i Bema. # pres-prf-root.fantatra Det.unspec lemur(s) comp white D.sg Bema # "Bema knows the lemurs to be white." (originally intended translation) # Adapted from Ileana Paul (1998:52, ex. 6a). # Contradiction between FACTIVE verb 'fantatra...' '(Speaker) knows # that (the fact that) ...' & speaker assumption triggered by comp 'ho'. # Speaker assumption with use of comp 'ho': The lemurs are NOT white. # In fact, this sentence is NOT Malagasy at all and simply cannot be # interpreted. Mahafantatra an'i Jeanne i Bema. # M- aha-fantatra an' i Jeanne i Bema. # pres-prf-root.fantatra acc D.sg Jeanne D.sg Bema # "Bema knows Jeanne." # Ungrammatical Mino ny orana ho avy aho.(0! 0 0 0) # M-ino ny orana ho avy aho. # pres-root.ino Det.unspec rain comp passive.root.come I # "I believe the rain to be coming." # Adapted from Ileana Paul (1998:54, ex. 13a) # Note comp 'ho'. # Contradiction between 'mino...' '(I) believe it will rain' & speaker # assumption triggered by non-FACTIVE REPORT comp 'ho'. # Speaker assumption with use of comp 'ho': It will NOT rain. # Note that the sentential complement shows up to the left of the subject. Mino aho fa ho avy ny orana. # Mino aho fa ho avy ny orana. # M-ino I fa ho avy ny orana. # pres-root.ino I comp fut passive.root.come Det.unspec rain # "I believe that the rain will come." # Note that the sentential complement occurs to the right of the subject. # Note the use of the FACTIVE REPORT comp 'fa'. # Ungrammatical Mino ny mpianatra tsirairay ho nitaraina aho.(0! 0 0 0) # M-ino ny mpianatra tsirairay ho n-i-taraina aho. # pres-root.ino Det.unspec student(s) each comp past-prf-root.taraina I # "I believe each student to have complained." (Intended reading) # Adapted from Ileana Paul (1998:54, ex. 13e) # Contradiction between 'mino...' '(I) believe students to have complained' # & speaker assumption triggered by comp 'ho': The students did NOT complain. # Note that the sentential complement shows up to the left of the subject. # Note comp 'ho' accompanying a non-STATIVE embedded predicate. # Note the quantifier 'tsirairay' 'each' accompanying the NP 'ny mpianatra'. # Now 'ny mpianatra' = '(all) the students'. # Contradiction: 'Ny mpianatra' = '(all) the students taken together as a set' # whereas 'tsirairay' means 'each', 'one by one' 'each individual member # of the same set considered as separate units'. # Also consult Randriamasimanana (2004:422-426) on why Malagasy is not a # 'feature spread' type of language, but rather a 'missing feature' type. # Ungrammatical Mino aho fa nitaraina ny mpianatra tsirairay.(0! 0 0 0) # M-ino aho fa n-i-taraina ny mpianatra tsirairay. # pres-root.ino I comp past-prf-root.taraina Det.unspec a student(s) each # "I believe that each student has complained." # Note that the sentential complement occurs to the right of the subject. # Note comp 'fa'. # Note the quantifier 'tsirairay' 'each' accompanying 'ny mpianatra'. # 'Ny mpianatra ' = '(all) the students' in the plural, as a set. Mino aho fa samy nitaraina ny mpianatra. # M-ino aho fa samy n-i-taraina # pres-root.ino I comp part past-prf-root.taraina # ny mpianatra tsirairay. # Det-unspec a student(s) each # "I believe that each student has complained." # Note that the sentential complement occurs to the right of the subject. # Note comp 'fa'. # Note the quantifier 'samy' 'each' accompanying the lower verb 'nitaraina' # 'complained' and NOT the Det phrase 'ny mpianatra''(all) the students'. # For more information on this phenomenon, consult Appendix C in # Randriamasimanana (2002). # Ungrammatical Mihevitra ny mpianatra ho mamaky ny boky Rabe. (0! 0 0 0) # M-i-hevitra ny mpianatra ho m-am-(v)aky ny boky Rabe. # pres-prf-root.hevitra Det student(s) comp pres-prf-passive.root.vaky Det book(s) Rabe # "Rabe thinks of the student that (he) is reading the book/" # (Original translation) from M. Pearson (2001:151, ex 160a) # or "Rabe believes the student to be reading the (p.m.) books." # Contradiction between 'mamaky ny boky' 'read the books' & speaker # assumption triggered by comp 'ho': The students do NOT read the books. # Note that the sentential complement shows up to the left of the subject. # Note comp 'ho' accompanying a non-STATIVE embedded predicate. Mihevitra Rabe fa mamaky ilay boky ilay mpianatra. # M-i-hevitra Rabe fa m-am-(v)aky ilay boky ilay mpianatra. # pres-prf-root.hevitra Rabe comp pres-prf-passive.root.vaky DX.sg book DX.sg student # "Rabe thinks that the (previous mention) student is reading # the (previous mention) book." # Note that the sentential complement occurs to the right of the subject. # Note comp 'fa'. # Charles Randriamasimanana, PhD in Linguistics (Malagasy, Austronesian)