# Verb-initial grammars: A multilingual/parallel perspective
# ESRC Project RES-000-23-0505
# Oxford University
# Charles Randriamasimanana


# Malagasy syntax/semantics: 
# Adjectives & Adverbs in Malagasy - ESRC-OX-06-CR211

# Adjectives & Adverbs in Malagasy.testfile:
# My main purpose here is to explore the behaviour of adjectives and adverbs in Malagasy
# in this two-part test file.

# Here is how this document is organized:

# Part One will describe non-verbal predicates found in Malagasy and will provide a
# a characterization of the distinction between preposition phrases (PP) and adverb
# phrases (ADV).
# Section One will describe non-verbal predicates in Malagasy, i.e. specifically
# Non-verbal adjective (ADJ) predicates
# Non-verbal noun phrase (NP) predicates
# Non-verbal PP predicates, which include Simple LOCATION-PP predicates as well as
# Complex constructions: LOCATION-PP predicates constituent-selected by a MOTION verb.
# Non-verbal ADV predicates after a morphological distinction between PPs & ADVs.
# Section Two will address the issue of Word order in relation to the following two 
# patterns, i.e.
# Dem.1  N  A > Num > Dem.2
# Temp.1  V  Loc  > Manner  > Temp.2
# Section Three will describe Tense & Aspect and further differences between ADVs and PPs.
# Section Four will characterize Tense & Aspect and marked ADJs, showing in the process
# a sytematic three-way distinction involving a verbal predicate, an Action Nominal form 
# and a distinct Stative Nominal form. Also it is shown that Malagasy ADJ can sometimes 
# also take a tense-marker although there are restrictions.

# Part Two is an exploration of the subcategory ADJADV and will comprise five sections.
# Section One will characterize Leftward Adjunction;
# Section Two will describe Negative Polarity Items and items surrounding the relevant element;
# Section Three will deal with Rightward Adjunction;
# Section Four will handle Either Rightward or Leftward Adjunction (ADV only);
# Section Five will introduce S(discourse-initial)-ADVs as contrasted with ADVs that 
# undergo adjunction to VP and have different meanings.


# Part One: Non-verbal Predicates, ADV Scope, Approximation of Distinction between PP & ADV

# Section One: Non-verbal predicates in Malagasy
# In Malagasy it is possible to have a non-verbal predicate, which corresponds to a Small Clause
# or an equative type of clause and comprising an ADJective (ADJ), or an NounPhrase (NP) or a 
# PrepositionPhrase (PP), or even an ADVerb (ADV) but with notable restrictions.

# Non-verbal ADJ predicates:
# In Malagasy, any ADJ can show up in a non-verbal predicate. However certain ADJ predicates must 
# meet a number of conditions. Here are two notable requirements: A subcategory of ADJ requires 
# an aspectual ADV in order to be used predicatively; as a result, features inherent in certain 
# ADVs may rule out certain combinations due to a clash of features. Also a number of high-frequency 
# ADJs present clitic and non-clitic forms; only a non-clitic form can be used predicatively.

  maina ny akanjo
# maina ny akanjo
# dry   the clothes
# 'the clothes are dry.'

  mbola kely i Paoly
# mbola kely i Paoly
# still little D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is still a child.'
# Note that the ADJ predicate kely 'little' requires an aspectual ADV like mbola 'still'
# for the sequence to be grammatical, as is clearly apparent from the following. 

# Ungrammatical:
  kely i Paoly
# kely i Paoly
# little D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is little.'

# Furthermore features of the aspectual ADV interact with those of the ADJ predicate;
# thus we observe the following pattern of grammaticality:

# Ungrammatical:
  efa kely i Paoly.
# efa     kely   i    Paoly
# already little D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is already small.'

  efa lehibe i Paoly.
# efa     lehibe i    Paoly.
# already big    D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is already big/mature.'


# In addition, features inherent in aspectual ADV may interact and rule out a given sequence
# of two juxtaposed ADVs, as is apparent from the following pattern:

  mahay i Paoly.
# mahay i Paoly
# intelligent D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is intelligent.'

  efa mahay i Paoly.
# efa mahay i Paoly
# already intelligent D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is already intelligent.'

  mbola mahay i Paoly.
# mbola mahay i Paoly
# still intelligent D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is still intelligent.'

# Ungrammatical:
  Efa mbola mahay i Paoly.
# Efa     mbola mahay       i    Paoly
# already still intelligent D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is already still intelligent.'
# Presumably efa 'already' corresponds semantically to a perfective aspect, whereas 
# mbola 'still' represents nonperfective aspect, thus yielding a contradiction.

# Ungrammatical:
  Mbola efa mahay i Paoly.
# Mbola efa     mahay       i    Paoly
# still already intelligent D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is still already intelligent.'
# Again efa 'already' corresponds semantically to a perfective aspect, whereas mbola
# 'still' represents nonperfective aspect, thus once more yielding a contradiction.


# In Malagasy, a number of high-frequency ADJs present a range of variant forms; 
# for example, ADJs meaning something like 'big' may present a number of variants 
# one of which may be monosyllabic while the other forms are not. Thus in this
# language, big may be translated as be'big', lehibe 'big', ngeza 'big' and ngeza be 'big'. 
# A non-clitic form of ADJ ngeza or ngezabe 'big' has to be used in an equative clause
# as a non-verbal predicate; whereas a clitic form of ADJ is absolutely ruled out.

  ngezabe i Paoly
# ngezabe i    Paoly
# big     D.sg Paul
# Paul is big.

  ngeza i Paoly
# ngeza i    Paoly
# big   D.sg Paul
# Paul is big.

# Ungrammatical:
  be i Paoly
# be      i    Paoly
# big     D.sg Paul
# Paul is big.


# Non-verbal NP predicates:
# In general in Malagasy, any bare NP can show up as a non-verbal predicate in an equative type
# of clause. However NP predicates must meet a number of conditions. In particular, the NP
# cannot be accompanied by a determiner and for a subcategory of NPs, the latter must have a GEN
# attached to them otherwise ungrammaticality ensues. Furthermore in connection to bare NPs, note 
# that an OBJECT NP cannot be separated from its head verb by an aspectual ADV in a transitive VP.

# In order to be used as predicates, certain NPs require a GEN; such is the case with the following
# { reny 'mother', rafozana in-laws', rahalahy 'brother [to a male sibling], rahavavy 'sister 
# [to a female sibling], raiamandreny 'parents', anabavy 'sister [to a male sibling], zandry 
# 'younger sibling', sakaiza 'intimate friend', tale 'director', tonia 'executive', vady 'spouse', 
# vinanto 'son or daughter-in-law', zafy 'grandchild', zafiafy 'great grandchild', zanaka 'offspring', 
# zaobavy 'sister-in-law', zaodahy 'brother-in-law', ...}

# Ungrammatical
  reny i Jeanne.
# reny i Jeanne.
# mother D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne is a mother.'

  reniko i Jeanne.
# reni-ko        i    Jeanne
# mother-of.mine D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne is my mother.'
# Note: Even as a grammatical subject, a GEN is required as clearly suggested by the 
# ungrammaticality of the following sequence.

# Ungrammatical:
  lasa ny reny.
# lasa ny reny.
# gone the mother
# 'The mother is gone.'

  lasa ny reniko.
# lasa ny reni-ko
# gone the mother-of.mine
# 'My mother left.'


# As far as NPs are concerned, note that it is NOT possible to have ADV separating the head V 
# from its OBJ complement in a transitive construction:

  Tsy manasa lamba foana i Paoly.
# Tsy m-anasa lamba foana i Paoly
# not pres-wash linen yet D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is not yet washing linen.'

# Ungrammatical:
  Tsy manasa foana lamba i Paoly.
# Tsy m-anasa   foana lamba i    Paoly
# not pres-wash yet   linen D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is not yet washing linen.'



# Non-verbal PP predicates:
# In Malagasy, any PP can show up as a non-verbal predicate in an equative type of clause;
# however note that the general PP amin(a), which can take a wide range of meanings is an 
# exception to such a generalization. In addition, PPs can typically take a perfective 
# aspect-marker,i.e. a morpheme t-, which is ambiguous between a perfective aspect reading 
# and secondarily a past time reading; by contrast certain typical ADVs like ahoana/nahoana
# 'how-come' and maninona/naninona/haninona 'why' tend to have a tense-marker while most 
# other ADVs are usually considered as unanalyzable entities; furthermore many ADVs such
# as aloha 'first of all' are NOT able to function as non-verbal predicates at all in Small
# Clauses, whereas all PPs can.

# Ungrammatical:
  aminy io.
# ami<na>-       ny         io
# on/in/with/...-by.him/her this
# 'This is on/in/with him/her.'
# The general PP amina canNOT be used as a non-verbal predicate in a Small Clause unlike
# all other Malagasy PPs.

  ao io.
# ø-      ao    io
# nonperf-there this
# 'This is there.'

  tao io.
# t-        ao    io
# perf/past-there this
# 'This has.been/was there.'


# Ungrammatical:
  aloha io.
# aloha        io
# first.of.all this
# 'This is first of all.'


# Simple LOCATION-PP predicates:
# So within the class of non-verbal predicates comprised of PPs, it is usually possible to
# identify a morpheme t-, which is ambiguous between a perfective aspect reading and a past 
# tense-marker reading and which can, for instance, be prefixed to a LOCATION-PP. It is to 
# be noted that in the past tense reading of t-, the PP typically acquires a MOTION verb 
# interpretation. Furthermore it is possible to obtain the equivalent of a 'future' tense 
# with the use of the particle 'ho' and an obligatory MOTION verb reading.

  Any Antsirabe i Jeanne.
# ø-            any   Antsirabe i    Jeanne.
# nonperfective-there Antsirabe D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne is in Antsirabe.'
# Note the absence of the morpheme t- on the head of the PP predicate any, which contrasts
# with the situation illustrated immediately below.

  Tany Antsirabe i Jeanne.
# T-        any   Antsirabe i    Jeanne.
# perf/past-there Antsirabe D.sg Jeanne
# Either 'Jeanne went to Antsirabe' in the past tens reading or 'Jeanne has already been 
# to Antsirabe', especially with aspectual ADV efa 'already' in front of PP 't-any'.
# Note the presence of the morpheme t- on the head of the PP predicate any.

  Ho any Antsirabe i Jeanne.
# Ho              any   Antsirabe i    Jeanne.
# future.particle-there Antsirabe D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne will go to Antsirabe.'
# Note the presence of the particle ho glossed as 'future' showing up on the head of the PP
# any and the obligatory interpretation of 'ho any' as a MOTION verb.


# Complex constructions: LOCATION-PP predicates constituent-selected by a MOTION verb.

# In addition to simple LOCATION-PP predicates as described above, it is also possible in
# Malagasy to have a matrix verb constituent-select such a construction, giving rise to
# a complex collocation made up of a MOTION verb and a LOCATION-PP predicate. For a list of 
# Location-prepositions that can make up a lexical collocation with a Motion verb consult 
# the end of the on-line document entitled 'Malagasy syntax/semantics: Malagasy Prepositions 
# - ESRC-OX-05-CR207 at http://users.ox.ac.uk/%7Ecpgl0015/pargram/data/prep-testfile.txt


# Non-verbal ADV predicates:
# In this section, we will describe non-verbal predicates involving ADVs after first 
# distinguishing an ADV from a PP and describing the relevant restrictions that apply.
# As already mentioned, nearly all PPs except for amin(a), which can have a wide range
# of meanings can be used predicatively; by contrast, a great number of ADVs canNOT
# be used predicatively at all.

# Morphological Distinction between PPs & ADVs in Malagasy.

# As far as morphology is concerned, a PP can and usually does accommodate a morpheme t-, which is 
# ambiguous between a perfective aspect and a past tense-marker. On the other hand, an ADV 
# canNOT make a similar accommodation. For example, a prototypical ADV taloha 'in the old days' 
# cannot be decomposed into a putative prefix t- and an ADV aloha. Indeed ADV aloha means 
# 'first of all', whereas ADV taloha refers to 'the old days' unequivocally. Furthermore 
# ADV taloha imposes a past tense-marker on the accompanying VP although ADV aloha does NOT.
# And as already mentioned earlier, certain ADVs can only accommodate tense-markers, which 
# tends to suggest that in general ADVs are typical adjuncts in this language.

# A prototypical adverb ADV aloha 'first' canNOT accommodate morpheme t- 'perfective aspect/past tense':

  nianatra aloha i Paoly.
# n-ianatra  aloha i    Paoly
# past-study first D.sg Paul
# 'First of all, Paul was studying.'

# Ungrammatical:
  nianatra taloha i Paoly
# n-ianatra  t-aloha    i    Paoly
# past-study past-first D.sg Paul
# 'First of all, Paul was studying.'


# A prototypical VP-scope adverb like ADV aloha 'first' canNOT be used predicatively at all:
# Ungrammatical:
  aloha i Paoly.
# aloha i    Paoly
# first D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is first.'


# A prototypical S-scope adverb like ADV taloha 'in the old days' canNOT always be used predicatively:

# Ungrammatical:
  taloha i Paoly.
# taloha          i    Paoly
# in.the.old.days D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is in the old days.'

  taloha io.
# taloha          io
# in.the.old.days this
# 'This was in the old days.'


# A prototypical Malagasy S-scope adverb ADV taloha 'in the old days, used to' canNOT drop 
# its putative morpheme t- prefix and cannot be used with any tense other than the past
# tense-marker.

  nianatra i Paoly taloha
# n-ianatra  i    Paoly taloha
# past-study D.sg Paul  in.the.old.days
# 'Paul used to study in the old days.'
# In this case, we have an S-scope ADV taloha 'in the old days', which imposes the
# past tense on the verb. Indeed it is not possible to have any other tense:

# Ungrammatical:
  mianatra i Paoly taloha
# m-ianatra  i    Paoly taloha
# pres-study D.sg Paul  in.the.old.days
# 'Paul is studying in the old days.'

# Ungrammatical:
  hianatra i Paoly taloha
# h-ianatra  i    Paoly taloha
# fut-study D.sg Paul  in.the.old.days
# 'Paul will be studying in the old days.'

  taloha nianatra i Paoly
# taloha          n-ianatra  i    Paoly
# in.the.old.days past-study D.sg Paul  
# 'In the old days, Paul used to study.'
# The only difference between this sequence and an earlier one is the position of ADV.


# On the other hand, VP-scope ADV aloha 'in the first place' can co-occur with any tense-marker:

  nianatra aloha i Paoly
# n-ianatra  aloha i    Paoly
# past-study first D.sg Paul  
# 'Paul was studying first.'
# The ADV aloha 'in the first place' can be adjoined to VP.

# Ungrammatical:
  nianatra i Paoly aloha
# n-ianatra  i    Paoly aloha
# past-study D.sg Paul  in.the.old.days
# 'Paul used to study.'
# The ADV aloha 'in the first place' canNOT be adjoined to S.

  mianatra aloha i Paoly
# m-ianatra  aloha i    Paoly
# pres-study first D.sg Paul  
# 'Paul is studying first.'
# The present tense can co-occur with VP-scope ADV aloha 'in the first place'.

  hianatra aloha i Paoly
# h-ianatra  aloha i    Paoly
# fut-study  first D.sg Paul  
# 'Paul will be studying first.'
# The future tense can co-occur with VP-scope ADV aloha 'in the first place'.



# Section Two: Word order, PP & ADJ Grammatical Categories and Incorporation

# Here is the overall picture describing the relative order of the constitutive elements
# within a typical NP and within a typical VP.

# Inside NP, assuming a left-to-right ordering we have the following pattern: 
# Dem.1  N  A > Num > Dem.2

  ireo akanjo lena anankiroa ireo
# ireo akanjo lena anankiroa ireo
# those clothes wet roa those
# 'those two pieces of wet clothes'
# where N = Noun, A = ADJective, Num = numeral and Dem = demonstrative; in addition,
# Dem.1 and Dem.2 refer to deictics such as 'ireo ... ireo''those-near-the-hearer', or
# 'ity ... ity''this-near-the-speaker'; and where Dem.1 and Dem.2 are obligatory and 
# must be identical, i.e. have to co-occur.
# Note that ADJ can typically be incorporated into a head Noun as in the following
# high-frequency expressions:

  olon-dehibe
# olon(a)-(l>)dehibe
# person   big
# 'adult(s)'

# Ungrammatical
  olona lehibe
# person big
# 'adult(s)'

  olon-dratsy
# olon(a)-d-   ratsy
# person  ep.d bad
# 'evil person(s)'



# Inside VP, assuming a left-to-right ordering we have the following pattern: 
# Temp.1  V  Loc  > Manner  > Temp.2

  mazana mandeha any haingana aloha i Paoly
# mazana m-andeha any   haingana aloha i    Paoly
# often  pres-go  there quick    first D.sg Paul
# 'Often Paul first goes there quickly.'
# where V = verb, Loc = location, Temp = either tense or aspect; in addition, note that
# Loc actually represents a PP and not really an ADV since it can definitely take an
# aspect-marker, i.e. the ambiguous prefix t- described earlier; obviously as an aspect-
# marker, this morpheme indicates that the PP is an argument of the head V. Furthermore
# Temp.1 refers to pre-verbal Time ADVs including items such as mazana 'oftentimes' or 
# matetika 'often'; and where Temp.2 refers to post-verbal ADVs including items such as aloha 
# 'first of all'. However it is to be noted that Temp.1 and Temp.2 can occur independently of
# each other and thus do not have to co-occur.


# Temp.1 TimeADVs tend to be adjoined to left of VP, whereas LOC-PP (typically an argument of V)
# tends to show up to the immediate right of the head V

  mazana mandeha any i Paoly
# mazana m-andeha any i Paoly
# often  pres-go  there D.sg Paul
# 'Often Paul goes there.'


# On the other hand, MannerADV tends to be adjoined to right of VP, which may already comprise 
# a LOC-PP argument:

  mandeha any tsikelikely ny olona
# m-andeha ø-any         tsikelikely      ny  olona
# pres-go  nonperf-there little.by.little the people
# 'People go there little by little.'




# Section Three: Tense & Aspect and Some Differences between ADVs and PPs.

# Typically ADVs can sometimes accommodate a tense-marker and either canNOT be used predicatively 
# at all or must observe a number of restrictions when used predicatively; on the other hand, nearly
# all PPs can be freely used predicatively, are usually arguments of the head verb and can usually 
# accommodate aspect-marker t-, which can however also sometimes receive a tense interpretation.

# Thus, on these two criteria, the item aiza/taiza 'where', which can take morpheme t-prefix will 
# be deemed to be a PP and is thus more likely to be eligible as an argument of the head verb; this 
# contrasts with the situation with other ambivalent items like ahoana 'how' or nahoana 'how-come, why', or
# prototypical items such as maninona/naninona/haninona 'why', which clearly involve a tense-marker and
# is thus more than likely to be straightforward cases of ADV, which usually involve adjunction as the 
# tense on the relevant item must agree with that showing up on the head verb. Each one of these properties
# will be illustrated immediately below.

  marina tokoa
# marina tokoa
# true   indeed
# 'quite true'
# Tokoa 'indeed' is a typical ADV.
# ADV tokoa cannot accommodate a tense-marker at all.

  marina kokoa
# marina kokoa
# true   more
# 'more true'
# Kokoa 'more' is a typical ADV.
# ADV kokoa cannot accommodate a tense-marker at all.

# Ungrammatical:
  tokoa io.
# tokoa io
# very  this
# 'This is very.'
# ADV tokoa 'indeed' cannot be used predicatively at all.

# Ungrammatical:
  kokoa io.
# kokoa io
# more this
# 'this is more.'
# ADV kokoa 'more' cannot be used predicatively at all.

  Taloha io.
# Taloha          io
# in.the.old.days this
# 'This was in the old days.'
# The sequence is grammatical only if the grammatical subject is non-human.

# Ungrammatical:
  Taloha i Paoly.
# Taloha          i    Paoly
# in.the.old.days D.sg Paul
# 'Paul was in the old days.'
# The sequence is ungrammatical because the grammatical subject is human.


  taiza no nianatra i Paoly?
# t-aiza          no     n-ianatra i    Paoly?
# perf/past-where focus past-study D.sg Paul
# 'Where did Paul study?'
# Aiza 'where' can accommodate the ambiguous morpheme t-.
# As a result, 'aiza' can qualify as a PP.

  taiza no nianaran'i Paoly?
# t-aiza     no    n-i-anaran'    i    Paoly?
# perf-study focus past-I-study-by D.sg Paul
# 'Where was it Paul was studying?'
# The value of morpheme t- on 'taiza''where' is perfective-aspect;
# therefore this item can be and is an argument of the verb mianatra
# 'to study'; evidence for this comes from the Passive.2 form of the
# verb.

  ahoana no nianaran'i Paoly an'io?
# ø-ahoana no    n-i-anaran(a)'      i    Paoly an' io?
# perf-how focus past-I-study-ANA.by D.sg Paul  acc this
# 'How was Paul studying this?'
# Item ahoana 'how' behaves at least partly like a typical PP and is an argument of
# the verb since the form nianarana is a Passive.2; on the other hand, like an ADV it canNOT
# accommodate morpheme t- since the following sequence is irretrievably ungrammatical.

# Ungrammatical:
  tahoana no nianaran'i Paoly an'io?
# t-ahoana no    n-i-anaran(a)'      i    Paoly an' io?
# perf-how focus past-I-study-ANA.by D.sg Paul  acc this
# 'How was Paul studying this?'
# The form 'tahoana' simply does not exist at all.


# Semi-grammatical sequence requiring a context:
  ahoana no nianatra an'io i Paoly?
# ø-ahoana    no    n-i- anatra  an' io   i    Paoly?
# nonpast-why focus past-I-study acc this D.sg Paul
# 'Why did Paul study this?'
# Ahoana 'why' behaves more like an ADV since it clearly is not an argument of the verb
# and since when it is fronted in a NO focus construction, the verb remains in the active
# voice. Note the meaning 'why', as opposed to 'how' earlier.

  nahoana no nianatra an'io i Paoly?
# n-ahoana no    n-i- anatra  an' io   i    Paoly?
# past-why focus past-I-study acc this D.sg Paul
# 'Why did Paul study this?'
# This is a fully grammatical sequence, which can be used discourse-initially.
# Note the form 'nahoana''why', which native speakers of the language use as an analyzable whole
# even though it clearly can virtually be decomposed into a past-tense prefix n- and 'ahoana', 
# which in this environment can only mean'why'.


  maninona no mianatra an'io i Paoly?
# m-aninona    no    m-ianatra  an' io   i    Paoly?
# pres-do.what focus pres-study acc this D.sg Paul
# 'Why does Paul study this?'
# Note the present tense-marker showing up on the ADV haninona 'why',
# which replicates that on the verb mianatra literally 'study/studies'.
# In reality, the item maninona is habitually used as an analyzed whole, i.e. pretty 
# much like a frozen expression and can virtually be decomposed into its constitutive 
# elements: m + an(ao) + inona 'present-do-what' compressed into the phrase maninona, 
# where the verb (m)anao itself has been compressed into an 'do' and where the 
# non-definite object inona 'what' has been incorporated into the head verb.

  naninona no nianatra an'io i Paoly?
# n-aninona    no    n-ianatra  an' io   i    Paoly?
# past-do.what focus past-study acc this D.sg Paul
# 'Why did Paul study this?'
# Note the past tense-marker n- showing up on the ADV haninona 'why',
# which virtually replicates that on the verb nianatra 'was studying'.

  haninona no hianatra an'io i Paoly?
# haninona    no    h-ianatra an' io   i    Paoly?
# fut-do.what focus fut-study acc this D.sg Paul
# 'Why will Paul study this?'
# Note the future tense-marker h- showing up on the ADV haninona 'why',
# which virtually replicates that on the verb hianatra 'will study'.



# Section Four: Tense & Aspect and Marked ADJs.

# So at this stage, it appears as though in their non-verbal predicate uses, PPs are associated
# with aspect (and secondarily only with tense) whereas ADVs can typically be associated with tense. 
# This section will show that ADJs are also sometimes associated with tense and with a subclass 
# of ADJs involving marked structures we can observe a co-occurrence of both tense and aspect,
# which show up in their Marked forms, i.e. either involving a gap in the system or in indeed 
# a morphologically marked form not conforming to the usual observed pattern.

# A case in point involves a three-way contrast based on ADJs such as mazava 'clear' and presenting
# the following forms: HAvazaINA V 'is being lit, explained' vs HAzavANA Action Nominal 'light' vs 
# HAzavaN Stative Nominal 'the degree of brightness (of something)'.

# The case of ADJ mazava 'clear' is not unique. Here is a brief description of the relevant pattern
# involving this verbal predicate, an Action Nominal form and a distinct Stative Nominal form.

  nohazavaina 'was lit'
# no-       ha-zava-     ina
# pass.past-HA-stem.zava-suff.INA
# 'was lit'
# This is a normal Passive.1 form comprising a passive past tense prefix 'no' in addition to the
# complex morpheme HA followed by the stem 'zava' and the passive suffix 'ina'; recall that in
# this language, when a direct object gets promoted to subject, the suffix INA is suffixed to
# the governing verb;

  hazavaina 'is being lit'
# ø -       ha-zava-     ina
# pass.pres-HA-stem.zava-suff.INA
# 'is being lit'
# This is a normal Passive.1 form comprising a passive present tense prefix 'zero' in addition to the
# complex morpheme HA followed by the stem 'zava' and the passive suffix 'ina'; recall that in
# this language, when a direct object gets promoted to subject, the suffix INA is suffixed to
# the governing verb;


# Sloppy Colloquial Malagasy:
  nazavaina 'was lit'
# n-   a-zava-     ina
# past-A-stem.zava-suff.INA
# 'was lit, was explained'
# where the prefix n- represents a past tense-marker and where A is short for aha reduced to aa, then
# to a simple a, presumably representing an aspect-marker just like the A element in a typical A-Passive;
# however it is to be noted that in the case of an A-Passive, we have A + Root (NOT a stem), whereas
# in the case above, we apparently obtain something like A + stem + suff.INA, which is not a usual
# pattern. Thus in this Colloquial Malagasy sequence, we have not only a tense-marker, we also have an
# aspect-marker as well.
 

# In addition to the above verbal form, we have an Action Nominal, ny hazavana 'the light';

  ny hazavana 'the light'
# ny hazavana
# ny  HA-zava-     (A)NA
# the HA-stem.zava-suff.ANA
# 'the light'
# This is a typical Action Nominal form involving stem zava followed by suffix ANA in addition to
# the remarkable HA prefix. Note that stem 'zava' carries stress on 'va'.


# It is also possible to have the Stative Nominal form ny hazavan'ny masoandro 'brilliance of the sun';

  ny hazavan'ny masoandro
# ny  ha-zava-     N(A)'         ny  masoandro
# the HA-root.zava-clitic.NA'of' the sun'
# 'the brilliance of the sun'
# Note that 'zava' is a root as it carries stress on 'za' and that it is perfectly grammatical
# with the GEN 'ny masoandro' 'of the sun' attached to the noun 'zava' by clitic NA 'of'. Note
# however that if GEN is dropped, ungrammaticality ensues.

# Ungrammatical:
  ny hazava
# ny ha-zava
# the HA-root.zava
# 'the brilliance'
# Note that 'zava', which carries stress on 'za' is a root and that it requires a GEN, without
# which the sequence is irretrievably ungrammatical.


# The case of ADJ mafana 'hot' is exactly parallel to that of mazava ADJ 'light' described above;
# indeed the ADJ prefix ma- had to be dropped, the root isolated before another prefix HA is used
# either on root 'zava' to which is appended clitic.NA 'of' or stem 'zava' is selected to which
# is affixed suffix ANA. On the other hand, ADJ lava 'long' and lavitra 'faraway' present a slightly
# different picture in that there is no prefix ma- to start with, but we can still obtain a 
# three-way distinction:

  halavaina 'will be lengthened'
# HA-lava-             ina
# HA-    stem.lava-    suff.INA
# prefix-be.lenghtened-by
# We are dealing here with Passive.1 voice involving promotion of a direct object to subject;
# 'will be lengthened'
# Note that the HA prefix is obligatory, as suggested by the ungrammaticality of the following
# sequence. This is rather peculiar since in general with Passive.1 in the unmarked cases anyway
# we do not have to have a verbal prefix.

# Ungrammatical:
  lavaina 'will be lengthened'
# lava-             ina
# stem.lava-    suff.INA
# be.lenghtened-by
# As remarked earlier, we are dealing here with a rather peculiar form of Passive.1 voice involving
# promotion of a direct object to subject; indeed under normal circumstances, Passive.1 does NOT 
# normally require a prefix at all; contrary to the situation with Passive.2, which requires both
# a prefix and a suffix
# 'will be lengthened'
 
# Action Nominal HAlavANA
  ny halavana
# ny  ha-lava-     (a)na
# the HA-stem.lava-suff.ANA
# 'the length'
# We have an Action Nominal comprising a prefix HA as well as Passive.2 suffix ANA. This is normal
# to the extent that Passive.2 always involves a prefix like AN or I as well as suffix ANA.


# Stative Nominal HAlavaN
  ny halavan'ny tady
# ny  ha-lava-     na'            ny  tady
# the HA-root.lava-clitic.NA.'of' the rope
# 'the length of the rope'
# Note that we have root lava to which is appended clitic NA 'of'; in addition note
# that GEN is obligatory, as suggested by the ungrammaticality of the following sequence.

# Ungrammatical:
  ny halava
# ny  ha-lava
# the HA-root.lava
# 'the length'
# Note that we have root lava with no clitic NA 'of' appended to it.

# Note that Noun roots like { fana 'heat', lama 'slipperiness', lemy 'softness', lezo, ngidy 
#'bitterness', nify 'thinness', ranitra 'sharpness', renina 'deafness', teza 'durability', 
# tsatso 'insipidity', zava 'lightness', ... } canNOT be used by themselves but require a 
# Stative Nominal prefix HA when used in a sentence. Thus we get the following contrast:

  ny hafanan'ny rano 
# ny  ha-fana-     n(a)'          ny  rano
# the HA-root.fana-clitic.NA.'of' the water
#'the temperature of the water'
# Note the presence of the obligatory prefix HA.

# Ungrammatical:
  ny fanan'ny rano
# ny  fana-n(a)'          ny  rano   
# the heat-clitic.NA.'of' the water
# 'the temperature of the water'
# This sequence is irretrievably ungrammatical in the absence of the obligatory prefix HA.


# A three-way contrast similar to the one described above can be found with the ADJs shown in 
# the items displayed in the following list:

# { bado ADJ 'stupid', badoina Passive.1 'is being taken for a ride' V vs HAbadoANA Action Nominal 
# 'ignorance (as a result of one's actions)' vs HAbadoN Stative Nominal 'state/level of ignorance', 
# donto ADJ 'blunt' dontoINA Passive.1 v 'is being rendered blunt' vs HAdontoANA Action Nominal 
# 'bluntness' vs HAdontoN Stative Nominal 'state/level of being blunt', faingana ADJ 'quick' HAfainganINA
# Passive.1 V 'is being quickened' vs HAfaingaN State Nominal 'state of being quick' vs HAfainganANA
# Action Nominal 'speed', kivy ADJ 'discouraged' kivINA Passive.1 V 'is being discouraged' vs HAkiviANA
# Action Nominal 'discouragement' vs HAkiviN Stative Nominal 'state of being discouraged', lalina ADJ
#'deep', lavitra ADJ distant', HAlavirINA Passive.1 V 'is being kept at a distance' vs HAlavirANA Action
# Nominal 'distance (related to some projected action)' vs HAlavitr' Stative Nominal 'distance (related
# to a state of affairs',  ... }

# On the other hand, with the items in the list shown immediately below only the Stative Nominal is 
# possible, i.e. only the HA prefix version is available, followed by Adjective root + NA + GEN:

  ny haavon'ny rindrina
# ny  ha-avo-     n(a)'          ny  rindrina
# the HA-root.avo-clitic.NA.'of' the wall
# 'the height of the wall(s)'
# Here we have a Stative Nominal with prefix HA on the root 'avo' with stress on the second occurrence of
# 'a' and to which is appended clitic.NA 'of'.

# Ungrammatical:
  ny haavon'ny rindrina
# ny  ha-avo-     (a)n(a)' ny  rindrina
# the HA-stem.avo-suff.ANA the wall
# 'the height of the wall(s)'
# Presumably in this case we have an Action Nominal comprising prefix HA and suffix ANA surrounds
# the stem 'avo' with stress on 'vo'.


# { avo [root]'high', fetsi [root]'cunning' (fetsi), kinga [root]'clever' (kinga saina 'to have a clever mind'), 
# maro [root]'many' (maro anaka 'to have many children'), ngita [root]'kinky' (ginta volo 'to have kinky hair), 
# njola [root]'cross-eyed' (njola maso 'to have squint eyes'), sola [root]'bald' (sola loha 'to have a bald head'), 
# vitsi [root]'few' (vitsi mpitsidika 'to have few visitors'), ... }



# Malagasy ADJ can also sometimes take a tense-marker although it has to emphasized this appears NOT 
# to be a fully productive process and is lexically determined, as can be inferred from the contrast
# between the relative lengths of the following two lists:

# A sample list of ADJs that may take tense will comprise a relatively short list of items:
# { masiaka 'is.cruel', nasiaka 'was.cruel'; mahantra 'is.poor', nahantra 'was.poor'; malailay'is.itchy',
# nalailay 'was.itchy'; malaky 'is.quick', nalaky 'was.quick'; ... }

# A sample list of ADJ that canNOT take tense at all appears to be much longer, as is apparent from
# the following:
# { adala 'foolish', ambany 'low', ambinina 'fortunate', ampy 'sufficient', manify 'thing', antitra 'old', 
# antomotra 'close at hand', arafesina 'rusty', avo 'high', bado 'stupid', baranahiny 'careless', be 
# 'big, numerous', betsaka 'numerous', bikana 'elegantly shaped', bingo 'bow-legged', bitika 'tiny', 
# boboka 'soaked', bonaika 'easy-going', bongo 'with a swelling', boribory 'spherical', botry 'stunted', 
# diso 'wrong', dombo 'blunt', dondrona 'dumb', donto 'blunt', fay 'disgusted', faly 'happy', farany 'last',
# farary 'usually sick', farina 'hoarse', fatsora 'deceitful', feno 'full', fetsy 'cunning', finaritra 
# 'happy', fisaka 'flat', foana 'empty', fohy 'short', fotsy 'white', gaga 'astonished', hafa 'different', 
# hatsatra 'pale', hendry 'wise', henika 'full', henjana 'stretched', hentitra 'tough', hipoka 'crammed', 
# irery 'alone', iva 'low', jamba 'blind', jenjina 'overwhelmed', jobo 'drunk', kahihitra 'stingy', 
# kalita 'jocular and deceitful', kamo 'lazy', kanosa 'cowardly', kaozatra 'very thin', kely 'small', 
# kentsona 'nasal', kepaka 'loose', ketraka 'not stiff', ketrina 'stupid', kevoka 'pretentious', 
# kilemaina 'crippled', kinga 'clever', kirina 'obstinate', kivy 'discouraged', kotsa 'soaking wet', 
# lalina 'deep', lava 'long', lavitra 'far away', lavorary 'perfect', lefy 'insipid', lehibe 'big', 
# lempona 'hollow', lena 'soaked', lesoka 'sunk in the middle', letsy 'sinking under pressure', 
# lo 'rotten', lonaka 'fertile', mafaraka 'rancid', maika 'in a hurry', mailaka 'nimble', maina 'dry', 
# mainty 'black', maintso 'green' maivana 'light in weight', malala 'cherished', malina 'prudent', 
# mamy 'sweet', mamo 'drunk', mangana 'bruised black and blue', manta 'raw', maro 'numerous', 
# masaka 'cooked', masina 'holy', matoa 'eldest', matroka 'dull', meloka 'guilty', mena 'red', 
# menatra 'ashamed', moana 'mute', momoka 'decayed', montsana 'reduced to bits and pieces', 
# mora 'easy', ... }
 

# In fact, only those ADJs, which take the MA adjectival prefix in addition to a root are eligible
# to receive a present tense prefix m- as contrasted with a past tense prefix n- ; and even then, 
# only these two tenses sound invariably plausible:

  maranitra
# m-   a-ranitra
# pres-A-root.ranitra
# 'is/are sharp'

  naranitra
# n-a-ranitra
# past-A-root.ranitra
# 'was/were sharp'

# Rather dubious grammaticality when used in isolation:
  haranitra
# h-a-ranitra
# fut-A-root.ranitra
# 'will be sharp'

# However grammaticality improves when used in conjunction with optative mood particle mba 'let.be':
  mba haranitra
# mba      h-a-ranitra
# optative fut-A-root.ranitra
# 'let.be will be sharp'
# Mba as used here is an optative mood marker.

# { madio 'clean', mafaitra 'bitter', mafana 'hot', mahia 'lean', malama 'slippery', malemy 'soft', 
#  malezo 'flimsy', malezolezo 'flimsy', maloto 'dirty', mangidy 'bitter', manify 'thin', maranitra 
# 'sharp', marenina 'deaf', masiaka 'cruel', matanjaka 'strong', mateza 'firm, durable', matsatso 
# 'insipid', matsiro 'tasty', mazava 'light', ... }


--------------------------------------------------------------



# Part Two: Exploration of the Subcategory ADJADV

# There is a subcategory of ADJ that can also serve as ADV, hence the label ADJADV.
# The behaviour of this subclass will be investigated in Part Two. They show the following
# types of behaviour: ADJADVs can be adjoined leftward; they can surround ADJPs or VPs;
# they can be adjoined rightward or even can be either right or left-adjoined. They may also 
# impact on the voice of the verb in relation to Focus constructions with NO as contrasted 
# with Topicalisation with particle DIA. Finally the notion of scope, i.e. S-scope ADV as 
# opposed to VP-scope ADV will be illustrated. 


# Section One: Leftward Adjunction
# ADJ such as diso 'wrong'and mora 'easy' can be used as ADV and can be adjoined to the left
# of ADJ, as illustrated immediately below:

  diso mahay 
# diso       mahay
# ADV	     ADJ
# 'a bit too intelligent'
# In this instance, 'diso' is used as an ADV and is adjoined to the left of ADJ.

  diso i Paoly
# diso  i    Paoly
# wrong D.sg Paul
# ADJ
# 'Paul is wrong'
# Here 'diso' ADJ 'wrong' is used predicatively.

  mora tezitra 
# mora    tezitra
# ADV	     ADJ
# 'easily angered'
# In this instance, 'mora' is used as an ADV and is adjoined to the left of ADJ.

  mora ny entana
# mora  ny  entana
# cheap the luggage
# ADJ
# 'the luggage is cheap'
# Here 'mora' ADJ 'cheap' is used predicatively.


# Items such as vao 'just' can typically be an ADV and usually not a ADJ (except for vao 
# with a typical ADJ form vaovao 'new') and can be left-adjoined to VP:

# vao ADV 'about to V' or 'have just Ved' depending on the tense of V
  vao mandeha i Paoly
# vao   m-andeha  i    Paoly
# newly pres-walk D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is (just) able to walk.'

  vao nandeha i Paoly
# vao   n-andeha  i    Paoly
# newly past-go   D.sg Paul
# 'Paul has just left.'

  vao handeha i Paoly
# vao   h-andeha  i    Paoly
# newly fut-go   D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is about to leave.'

# Note the preference for ADJ form vaovao 'new'
  trano vaovao
# trano vaovao
# house new
# 'a new house'

# Very dubious grammaticality:
  vao io
# vao io
# new this
# 'This is new.'



# Items such as ADV only efa 'already' can be adjoined to the left of either ADJP or VP
# but certainly NOT in isolation as a predicate.

# efa ADV only 'already' is left-adjoined to ADJP;
   efa mahay 
#  efa mahay
#  ADV ADJ
# 'already knowledgeable (about something)';
# Exceptionally the form 'efa' in addition to being an ADV as used here with the
# meaning 'already' can also be used as an ADJ with another meaning, i.e. 'done';
# When an item is labelled 'ADV only', this implies that it is NOT at all possible
# to use the ADV predicatively, as illustrated immediately below.

# Ungrammatical use of ADV efa 'already':
  efa i Paoly.
# efa     i    Paoly
# already D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is already.'

# Grammatical use of ADJ efa 'done':
  efa io.
# efa  io
# done this
# 'This is done.'


# efa ADV only 'already' is left-adjoined to VP;
  efa mandeha 
# efa     m-andeha
# already pres-go/walk
# ADV	     VP
# '(can) already walk'

  efa nandeha 
# efa     n-andeha
# already past-go
# ADV	     VP
# 'has/have/is/are already walked/gone'


# mbola ADV only 'still'
# mbola ADV only is left-adjoined to ADJP;
  mbola tsara
# mbola tsara
# ADV	ADJ 
# 'still good' 


# mbola ADV only 'still' is left-adjoined to VP;
  mbola handeha 
# mbola h-andeha
# 'still.in.process will go'
#  ADV	     		VP
# 'will still be going'
 
  mbola nandeha 
# mbola            n-andeha
# still.in.process past-go
#  ADV	     		VP
# 'was still going'


# saika ADV only 'almost'
# ADV only is left-adjoined to ADJP;
  saika maty 
# saika maty
# ADV	ADJ
# 'almost dead' 

# saika ADV only 'almost' is left-adjoined to VP;
  saika handeha 
# saika h-andeha
# ADV	  VP
# 'almost will go'
 
  saika nandeha 
# saika n-andeha
# ADV	  VP
# 'almost went'


# tena ADV only 'very'
# tena ADV only 'very' is left-adjoined to ADJP; 
  tena tsara
# tena   tsara
# indeed good
# ADV	 ADJ
# 'very good' 

# tena ADV only 'indeed' is left-adjoined to VP;
  tena mandeha 
# tena m-andeha
# indeed pres-walk
# ADV	  VP
# 'to walk/function indeed'



# Section Two: Negative Polarity Items - ADV particles surrounding ADJP/VP; in general
# it is not possible to use the second part of the expression in isolation, i.e. typically 
# without the negation word tsy 'not' in the following:
# { tsy .. intsony 'no longer', tsy ... velively 'do/es not ... at all', tsy ... akory
# 'do/es not really, tsy ... mihitsy 'do/es not ... at all'--which behaves somewhat differently
# from the other items cited here, ... } 

# ADV particles surrounding ADJP:
  tsy tsara intsony 
# tsy tsara intsony
# tsy ADJ   intsony
# not good any.longer

# Ungrammatical:
  tsara intsony 
# tsara intsony
# ADJ   intsony
# good any.longer
# If the negation ADV tsy is left out, the sequence becomes ungrammatical.

  tsy tsara velively 
# tsy tsara velively
# tsy ADJ   velively
# 'not good at all'

  tsy tsara mihitsy 
# tsy tsara mihitsy
# tsy ADJ   indeed
# 'not good at all'
# However note that the negative word' tsy''not' in this specific case can be replaced by
# the superlative ADV tena 'very' to yield the following:

  tena tsara mihitsy 
# tena tsara mihitsy
# very ADJ   indeed
# 'Very good indeed'


# ADV particles surrounding VP:
  tsy mandeha intsony 
# tsy m-andeha intsony
# not pres-go  any.longer
# tsy      VP  intsony
# 'no longer works'

# Ungrammatical:
  mandeha intsony 
# m-andeha intsony
# pres-go  any.longer
#         VP  intsony
# 'longer works'
# If the negation ADV tsy is left out, the sequence becomes ungrammatical.

  tsy mandeha mihitsy 
# tsy m-andeha mihitsy
# not pres-go  at.all
# tsy      VP  mihitsy
# 'does not work at all'
# Again, as was the case previously the negative tsy 'not' can be replaced
# by the superlative ADV tena 'very' to yield the following:

  tena mandeha mihitsy 
# tena   m-andeha mihitsy
# indeed pres-go  at.all
# ADV      VP  mihitsy
# 'work/s indeed'

# Ungrammatical:
  mandeha mihitsy 
# m-andeha mihitsy
# pres-go  at.all
#         VP  mihitsy
# 'longer at all'
# If the negation ADV tsy (or its substitute in this specific case) is left out, 
# the sequence becomes ungrammatical.

  tsy nandidy mofo intsony
# tsy n-andidy mofo intsony 
# not past-cut bread longer
# tsy      VP  OBJ   ADV
# 'no longer cut bread'

# Ungrammatical:
  nandidy mofo intsony
# n-andidy mofo intsony 
# past-cut bread longer
#          VP  OBJ   ADV
# 'longer cut bread'
# If the negation ADV tsy is left out, the sequence becomes ungrammatical.

# Ungrammatical:
  tsy nandidy intsony mofo
# tsy n-andidy intsony mofo 
# not past-cut longer  bread
# tsy      VP  ADV     OBJ
# 'no longer cut bread'


# Section Three: Rightward Adjunction

# Rightward Adjunction to ADJP:

# Item antitra 'old' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of ADJP (colour): 
  mavo antitra
# mavo antitra
# ADJ  ADV 
# Literally:'yellow dark'

# Exceptional use of betsaka 'numerous' as ADV, which can be adjoined to the right of ADJP: 
  mamy betsaka
# mamy betsaka
# ADJ  ADV 
# Literally: 'sweet numerous', i.e. 'big kisses' at end of a letter, message, etc ...

# Typical use of betsaka ADJ 'numerous' in a Focus construction in front of focus particle NO:
  betsaka ny mpianatra no nandeha
# betsaka  ny  mpianatra no    nandeha
# numerous the students  focus past-go
# 'Numerous were the students who went.'

  betsaka no nandeha ny mpianatra
# betsaka  no    n-andeha ny  mpianatra
# numerous focus past-go  the student(s)
# 'Numerous were the students who went.'

  betsaka ny mpianatra
# betsaka  ny  mpianatra
# numerous the students
# 'The students are/were numerous.'

# Ungrammatical
  nandeha ny mpianatra betsaka
# n-andeha ny  mpianatra betsaka
# past-go  the students  numerous
# 'Numerous students went.'

  nandeha ny mpianatra maro
# n-andeha ny  mpianatra maro
# past-go  the students  numerous
# 'Numerous students went.'


# Item tanora'young' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of ADJP (colour): 
   mavo tanora 
#  mavo tanora
#  ADJ  ADV
# Literally:'yellow young'i.e. 'light yellow'

# Item velona 'alive' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of ADJP: 
   bado velona 
#  bado   velona
#  ADJ    ADV
# Literally:'stupid thoroughly', i.e.'thoroughly stupid.'



# Only Rightward Adjunction to VP is possible.

# Item faingana or haingana ADV 'quickly' can only be adjoined to the right of VP:
  nandeha haingana i Paoly
# n-andeha haingana i    Paoly
# past-go  quickly  D.sg Paul
# 'Paul went quickly.'

# Ungrammatical:
  haingana nandeha i Paoly
# haingana n-andeha i    Paoly
# quickly  past-go  D.sg Paul
# 'Paul went quickly.'

# Item irery 'single, by oneself' as ADV can only be adjoined to the right of VP :
  mandeha irery 
# m-andeha irery
# 'pres-go single'
#       VP  ADV
# 'to go alone/by oneself'

# Ungrammatical:
  irery mandeha 
# irery  m-andeha
# single pres-go'
#  ADV     VP
# 'to go alone/by oneself'

# Note the possibility of Rightward Adjunction to NP as well in a Focus construction;
# irery ADJ 'alone' typically used in a Focus construction in front ot particle no
  i Paoly irery ihany no nandeha 
# i    Paoly irery ihany no    n-andeha
# D.sg Paul  alone only  focus past-go 
# 'Only Paul alone went/left.'

  i Paoly irery no nandeha 
# i    Paoly irery no    n-andeha
# D.sg Paul  alone focus past-go 
# 'Only Paul alone went/left.'

# Ungrammatical:
  nandeha i Paoly irery
# n-andeha i    Paoly irery
# past-go  D.sg Paul  alone
# 'Paul alone went/left.'
# Apparently it is not possible to adjoin ADJ irery to 'i Paoly' in the structure
# above.

  irery i Paoly
# irery i    Paoly
# alone D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is alone.'


# Item kely ADV 'a little, please' can only be adjoined to the right of VP :
  mandehana kely
# m-andehana           kely
# pres-Stem-imp.suff.A a little
# go                   a little/please 
#       imperativeVP   ADV-please
# 'please, go'

  mandeha kely 
# m-andeha          kely
# 'pres-take.a.walk a little'
#     indicativeVP   ADV-a short while
# 'to take a short walk'


# NOTE: kely ADJ 'small' used predicatively typically requires 

# (i) either an ADV like mbola 'still', as already described previously
  mbola kely i Paoly
# mbola kely  i    Paoly
# still small D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is still.'

# (ii) or as part of a complex ADJ predicate like keliray, kelireny
# keliray ADJ 'small_and_slight_of_stature as inherited from the father'
# kelireny ADJ 'small_and_slight_of_stature as inherited from the mother'.
  keliray i Paoly
# keliray       i    Paoly
# keli + ray    D.sg Paul
# small  father
# 'Paul has a small and light stature after his father.'

  kelireny i Paoly
# kelireny       i    Paoly
# keli + reni    D.sg Paul
# small  mother
# 'Paul has a small and light stature after his mother.'

# Ungrammatical:
  kely i Paoly
# kely  i    Paoly
# small D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is small.'


# Item lalina 'deep' as ADV can only be adjoined to the right of VP: 
  niditra lalina i Paoly
# n-iditra lalina i    Paoly
# past-go  deep   D.sg Paul
#      VP   ADV
#' Paul went deeply (into something).'


# Item lava 'often' as ADV can only be adjoined to the right of VP: 
  mandeha lava
#  m-andeha lava 
# 'pres-go often'
#      VP   ADV
# 'Is always on the go.'

# Item lava ADJ 'long' requires either an intensifier ADV preferably or a complex predicate:
  lava be i Paoly
# lava be   i    Paoly
# tall very D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is very tall.'

# Item lava 'long' yields a very dubious sequence without a special context/intonation:
  lava i Paoly
# lava i    Paoly
# tall D.sg Paul
# 'Paul is tall.'

# Typically item lava shows up in a complex predicate such as lava tongotra:
  lava tongotra i Paoly
# lava tongotra i    Paoly
# long feet     D.sg Paul
# Literally 'Paul has long feet', i.e. 'always on the go.'


# Item maina 'empty-handed' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of VP: 
  niverina maina 
# n-iverina  maina
# 'past-come back empty-handed'
#         VP      ADV
# 'came back empty-handed'



# Rightward Adjunction of ADJADV element to either VP or ADJP:

# Item be'well' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of VP: 
  mandeha be 
# m-andeha be
#    VP   ADV
#'pres-go  well'
# 'to go well'

# Predicate be ADJ 'numerous' can optionally take an accusative OBJ as a complement 
# and have a LOCATIVE as a SUBJ:
  be an'io any
# be       an'  io   any
# numerous acc. this there
# 'There is a lot of this there.'

# Item be'well' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of ADJP: 
  tsara be 
# tsara be
# ADJ   ADV
# Literally:'well very'


# Item 'foana' 'always' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of VP: 
  mandeha foana 
# m-andeha foana
#     VP   ADV
# 'pres-go always'
# 'Go/goes always'

# Item 'foana' 'always' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of ADJP: 
  tsara foana 
# tsara foana
#  ADJ   ADV
# 'good always'

# Note use of foana ADV 'always' accompanying a PN in a NO focus construction
  i Paoly foana no mandeha
# i    Paoly foana  no    m-andeha
# D.sg Paul  always focus pres-go
# 'It is always Paul who goes.'

# Ungrammatical:
  mandeha i Paoly foana
# m-andeha i    Paoly foana
# pres-go  D.sg Paul  always
# 'Paul always goes.'


# Item 'lavitra' 'far' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of VP:
  mandeha lavitra 
# m-andeha lavitra
#     VP   ADV
# 'pres-go far'
# 'go/goes far.'

# Item 'lavitra' 'far' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of ADJP: 
  tsara lavitra 
# tsara lavitra
#  ADJ   ADV
# 'good by far'

# Predicate lavitra ADJ 'far' typically requires a complement OBJ and 
# assigns accusative case to its complement:

  lavitra anay    io
# lavitra anay    io
# far     acc.us this
# 'This is far from us.'


# Item 'tsara' 'well' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of VP: 
   mandeha tsara
#  m-andeha tsara
#     VP    ADV
# 'pres-go well'
# 'Go/goes well.'

   mianatra lesona tsara i Paoly
#  m-ianatra  lesona tsara i    Paoly
#  pres-study lesson well  D.sg Paul
#      V      OBJ    ADV
# 'Paul studies (his) lessons well.'

# Ungrammatical:
   mianatra tsara lesona i Paoly
#  m-ianatra  tsara lesona  i    Paoly
#  pres-study well  lessons D.sg Paul
#      V      ADV   OBJ
#  'Paul studies well his lessons.'


# Item 'tsara' 'well' as ADV can be adjoined to the right of ADJP: 
  marina tsara 
# marina   tsara
#  ADJ     ADV
# Literally:'levelled perfectly.'

# Predicate tsara ADJ 'good' can optionally take a beneficiary type of object:
  tsara ho anay io
# tsara ho  anay   io
# good  for acc.us this
# 'This is good for us.'


# Section Four : Either Rightward or Leftward Adjunction (ADV only).

# We will consider maro first as ADJ and subsequently as ADV.

# Item maro ADJ 'numerous' can optionally take an accusative OBJ + LOCATIVE as a SUBJ
  maro an'io any
# maro     an'  io   any
# numerous acc. this there
# 'There is a lot of this there.'

# Item maro ADV 'numerous' can be right-adjoined to VP
  tonga maro ny mpianatra
# tonga   maro     ny  mpianatra
# arrived numerous Det students
# 'The students arrived numerous.'

# Item maro ADJ 'numerous' does not have any impact on verbal voice where a Focus 
# structure with NO is invoved:
  maro no tonga ny mpianatra
# maro     no    tonga   ny  mpianatra
# numerous focus arrived the students
# 'Numerous are/were the students who came.'


# With ADV maro 'numerous', there is no impact on VP where focus NO construction is involved:

# maro ADV 'numerous' adjoined to right of VP
  niaraka maro ry zareo
# n-iaraka         maro     ry     zareo
# past-go.together numerous D.plur those
# 'They went together in great numbers.'

  maro no niaraka ry zareo
# maro     no    n-iaraka         ry     zareo
# numerous focus past-go.together D.plur those
# 'Numerous were they who went together.'


# With ADVs such as vetivety 'quickly', there is no impact on the VP where 
# DIA topicalization is involved:

# vetivety ADV'quickly' can be adjoined to right of VP 
  nandeha vetivety i Paoly
# n-andeha vetivety         i    Paoly
# past-go  for a short time D.sg Paul
#     VP   ADV
# 'Paul went for a short time.'

# vetivety ADV 'quickly, all of a sudden' can be adjoined to left of VP
  vetivety teo dia nandeha i Paoly
# vetivety t-eo       dia n-andeha i    Paoly
# quicky   past-there Tpc past-go  D.sg Paul
# 'All of a sudden Paul left.'


# Certain ADVs such as vetivety 'quickly' or ela 'for a long time' encoding DURATION 
# or its absence apparently have an impact on the verbal voice of VP where a NO focus 
# construction is involved:

  vetivety no nandehanan'i Paoly tany
# vetivety no    n-an-dehan-an(a)'i    Paoly t-any
# quick    focus past-AN-Stem-ANA D.sg Paul  perf-there
# Lit. 'It was quickky that Paul went there.'
# Note the Passive.2 form AN ... ANA surrounding the stem deha 'go'.

  nandeha tany vetivety i Paoly
# n-andeha t-any      vetiveti         i    Paoly
# past-go  perf-there for a short time D.sg Paul
#     VP   PP         ADV
# 'Paul went there for a short time.'
# Note that PP t-any 'perfective-there' is an argument of the verb nandeha 'went'.

# Ungrammatical:
  vetivety no nandeha tany i Paoly
# vetiveti no    n-an-deha    t-any      i    Paoly
# quick    focus past-AN-leha perf-there D.sg Paul
# Lit. 'It was quickky that Paul went there.'
# It is not possible to have ADV vetivety 'quickly' in a NO Focus construction and
# keep the active voice on the governing verb.


  nitsangana ela i Paoly
# n-itsangana   ela  i    Paoly
# past-stand.up long D.sg Paul
#               ADV
# 'Paul stood for a long time.'

# Fronted ADV ela 'for a long time' requires Passive.2:
  ela no nitsanganan'i Paoly
# ela  no    n-i-tsangan-an(a)'    i    Paoly
# long focus past-ActiveI-Stem-ANA D.sg Paul
# 'It was a long time that Paul was standing up.'
# Note the Passive.2 form I ... ANA surrounding stem tsangan 'stand'.

# Ungrammatical:
  ela no nitsangana i Paoly
# ela  no    n-itsangana   i    Paoly
# long focus past-stand.up D.sg Paul
# 'It was a long time that Paul was standing up.'
# Again it is not possible to have ADV vetivety 'quickly' in a NO Focus construction
# and keep the active voice on the governing verb.


# Section Five: S(discourse-initial)-ADV or adjunction to VP BUT with different meanings.

# Certain ADVs such as farany or voalohany can have a wide scope, i.e. S-scope with one meaning 'finally'
# 'firstly' or can have a narrow scope, i.e. VP-scope with a different meaning altogether 'last' or 'first'.
# Both cases involve clear-cut adjuncts not affecting the voice of the verbal predicate.

# Item farany S-ADV 'finally' is left-adjoined to S:
  farany nandeha i Paoly
# farani  n-andeha i    Paoly
# finally past-go  D.sg Paul
# 'Finally Paul left.'
# Note that it is not at all possible to right-adjoin S-ADV 'finally' to S.

# Ungrammatical:
  nandeha i Paoly farany
# n-andeha i    Paoly farany
# past-go  D.sg Paul  finally
# 'Paul left finally.'

# Item farany ADV 'last' with VP-scope is right-adjoined to VP:
  nandeha farany i Paoly
# n-andeha farani i    Paoly
# past-go  last   D.sg Paul
# 'Paul went last.'

# Item voalohany S-ADV 'finally' is typically reinforced by ADV aloha:
  voalohany aloha nandeha i Paoly
# voalohany aloha n-andeha i    Paoly
# firstly   first past-go  D.sg Paul
# 'First of all, Paul left.'

# Item voalohany ADV 'firstly' with VP-scope is right-adjoined to VP:
  nandeha voalohany i Paoly
# n-andeha voalohani i    Paoly
# past-go  first     D.sg Paul
# 'Paul went first.'