# Verb-initial grammars: A multilingual/parallel perspective
# ESRC Project RES-000-23-0505
# Oxford University
# Charles Randriamasimanana

# Malagasy syntax/semantics: 
# Grammatical functions, roots and stems in Malagasy - ESRC-OX-06-CR209.


# Grammatical functions, roots and stems in Malagasy.

# My main purpose here is to illustrate the distribution of grammatical functions in Malagasy 
# over a whole range of phrase structures as they interact with voice affixes that can or cannot
# show up on roots and stems in this language.  In the first instance, it will become evident that 
# typically a bare root generally describes a STATE and that by and large a stem refers to 
# some DELIBERATE kind of ACTIVITY; this will have several repercussions. This will enable us 
# to differentiate between a root that can be accompanied by a clitic 'na' introducing a genitive
# (GEN), whereas a stem comes with a passive suffix introducing an oblique-agent (OBLag). 
# In addition, there exists a distinction between a Direct Object (OBJ.1) and an Indirect Object
# (OBJ.2) in Malagasy. In fact, suffixation with ina for Passive.1 is restricted to promotion 
# of a Direct Object to grammatical Subject (SUBJ) while suffixation with ana for Passive.1 is 
# reserved for promotion of an Indirect Object to Subject. On the other hand Passive.2 --also 
# labelled 'circumstantial' or 'relative' passive voice--, which consists in promotion of an 
# Oblique argument to Subject, necessarily comprises a verbal prefix as opposed to Passive.1, 
# which does not require a verbal prefix at least in the passive voice present tense. Relevant 
# forms (roots vs stems) will be introduced and described according to the grammatical function 
# framework with which they interact and lists of relevant lexical items will be provided. Note 
# that many lexical items may participate in diverse frames depending on their use and that as 
# a result, a subscript may be used to indicate that one item has several different uses. Last 
# but not least, what follows represents ongoing research and is amenable to updates as data 
# coverage expands.

# This document is organised as follows:
# Part 1: Passive roots will comprise Section 1 (V roots), Section 2 (Adj roots) and Section 3 (N roots);
# Part 2: Non-passive stems will consist of Section 1 (OBJ.1 > SUBJ) and Section 2 (OBJ.2 > SUBJ);
# Part 3: Complex stems will be explored relative to the promotion of OBLinstr > SUBJ, first with 
# respect to passive roots (Section 1), subsequently where non-passive roots, i.e. specifically Nouns
# are concerned (Section 2); Part 4 will explore the distribution of Roots & Stems; while Part 5 
# will attempt to characterize crucial links between A-Passive & thematic roles.

# The first part will concentrate on what is traditionally called 'passive roots', i.e. forms
# that generally have a passive-like meaning and that do not take any affix of any kind 
# (either a prefix, a suffix or an infix). In the second part, so-called non-passive roots 
# will be dealt with, which under certain circumstances can take an affix: Thus this subset 
# typically represents items which require two distinct verbal prefixes --one carrying tense 
# and the other bearing lexical aspect-- and without which the corresponding verb simply canNOT 
# exist at all in the active voice; however it should also be noted that in Passive.1, the 
# present tense and the lexical aspect are not only amalgamated, they are not overtly marked  
# at all with this same subset of predicates. The third part will be devoted to the so-called 
# 'circumstantial' or 'relative' voice, which necessarily and always displays one overt prefix 
# encoding lexical aspect and a suffix, i.e. thereby requiring a circumfix to surround the 
# relevant stem. In the first instance, we will consider instrument types of oblique (OBLinstr)
# since it is obligatory to have the Passive.2 form of passivization especially when an OBLinstr
# is in focus, i.e. to the left of VP.



# Part 1: Passive roots

# Malagasy has two kinds of predicate depending on whether the latter is based on a passive root
# or a non-passive root. A passive root is a lexical item which has a passive-like meaning in
# general and which does not take a primary affix at all: A passive root does not take a prefix, 
# it does not take a suffix and it does not take an infix. Thus, a passive root like hita 'be.seen'
# canNOT take a passive voice suffix like ina or ana. At best, it can only accommodate a clitic
# like na, which should not be confused with the previous two passive affixes just mentioned.
# Indeed, clitic na and passive suffixes ina or ana are in complementary distribution: Clitic na
# traditionally glossed as 'by' can be appended to a root whereas passive suffix ina or ana -- also
# glossed as 'by'-- can only attach to a stem. Crucially clitic na does NOT trigger stress shift 
# while suffixation is ALWAYS accompanied by stress shift.


# Section 1 - V roots

# The following first section shows predicate sequences involving Verb roots only. The predicates
# listed in this section are all passive roots in that they generally have a passive-like meaning
# like most so-called 'passive roots' and they can all be subcategorized as verbs.

# A - Root: SUBJ.COMP.fa
# This set of passive root predicates describe general--sometimes atemporal-- truths and 
# (A) usually take a sentential subject comprising an obligatory Complementizer fa, but no 
# genitive agent or OBLgen and where S = sentence.

# Corresponding potential active voice prefixes are provided along with relevant roots.

# Potential A-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { mahita 'to see', transitive < hita [root]'be.seen', hita fa S ='(it) is evident that S', ... }
				
# Potential AN-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { mamantatra 'to try to find out about' < fantatra [root]'be.known', fantatra fa S ='(it) is well-known 
# that S'; manapaka 'to decide' < tapaka [root]'has.been.decided', tapaka fa S ='(it has) been decided 
# that S'; mandre 'to hear' < re [root]'is.heard', re fa S ='(it has been) announced by voice/proclaimed 
# that S',  ... }

# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { mitsapa 'to search for by feel' < tsapa [root]'be.felt', tsapa fa S =  tsapa fa S'(it has) been felt 
# that S'; ... }


# B - Root with epenthetic 'na': SUBJ.COMP.fa-GEN
# This set of passive root predicates describe PROCESSES and (B) take a sentential subject 
# comprising an obligatory Complementizer fa, as well as GEN introduced by an epenthetic na 
# (but certainly NOT a passive suffix ina since by definition a root does not comprise a suffix).

# Possible alternation between clitic ko 'by.me' and clitic 'na' on the relevant root:
# { henoko/na fa S = heno2 + ko/na '(is) heard by me/s.one that S' = 'I/someone hear(s) that S', 
# hitako/na fa S = hita2 + ko/na '(is) seen by me/s.one that S' = 'I/someone see(s) that S', 
# fantratro/na fa S = fanta<tra>2 +ko/na'(is) known to someone that S' = 'someone knows that S', 
# reko/na fa S = re2 + ko/na '(is) heard by me/someone that S' = 'I/someone hear(s) that S', 
# tsapako/na fa S = tsapa2 + ko/na '(is) felt by someone that S' = 'I/someone realize(s) that S', ... }


# Potential AN-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the bare root is relevant:
# { manambara 'to declare' < ambara '(is) declared by someone that S', ambarako/na fa S = 
# (It) is declared by me/someone that' ; manadino 'to forget' < hadino2 '(is) forgotten
# by s.one that S', hadinoko/na fa S '(It) is forgotten by me/someone that S', 'I/someone 
# forgot that S'; ... } 


# C.1 - Root with epenthetic 'na': SUBJ-GEN
# This set of passive root predicates describe PROCESSES which may acquire an ABILITATIVE meaning
# and (C.1) usually take a GEN (on the root) introduced by an epenthetic na as well as a subject DP.

# Corresponding active voice prefixes are provided along with the relevant roots.

# No prefixes at all possible with C.1 on the relevant roots:
# { aleo1.[root] '(is) preferred by someone' = '(someone) prefers someone/thing', entina '(is) taken 
# away by someone', hala.[root] '(is) hated by someone' ='(someone) can hate someone/thing', (tsy 'not')
# laitra.[root] '(can(not)) be chewed' ='(someone) cannot stand someone/thing', mati2.[root] '(is) dead
# because of something', tonga2.[root]'(is).arrived'='to manage to carry someone/thing to their 
# destination', voa.[root] '(to) have been unwittingly hit', ...}

# Possible active voice prefixes (primary) are provided along with relevant roots.

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { manaraka 'to follow'< araka.[root] '(is) able to be followed by someone/thing' ='(someone) manages 
# to follow someone/thing', manefa 'to carry out'< efa.[root] '(is) done/carried out by someone' =
#'(someone) manages to do something', mamoi 'to give up'< foi.[root]'(is) given up' ='(someone) manages 
# to give up on someone/something', mamantatra 'to try to find out about something'< fantatra3.[root] 
# '(is) known to someone' ='(someone) knows somebody/something', manadino 'to forget'< hadino.[root] 
# '(is) forgotten by someone' ='(someone) can forget someone/thing', mandre 'to hear'< re2.[root] '(is)
# heard' ='(someone) hears something', mandrendrika 'to sink something'< rendrika2.[root] '(is) sunk 
# because of something', mandresi 'to defeat someone'< resi.[root] '(is) defeated by someone' or 
# '(someone) manages to defeat somebody', mandripaka 'to destroy'< ripaka2.[root] '(is) destroyed in 
# large  numbers (by an epidemic)', mandavo 'to bring down'< lavo2.[root] '(is) fallen.ADVERSATIVE',
# manaporitra 'to crush'< poritra.[root] '(is) unwittingly crushed by someone' or '(someone) manages 
# to crush something', mamotika 'to smash'< potika2.[root] '(is) unwittingly smashed by someone' or 
# '(someone) manages to smash something', manatanteraka 'to carry out'< tanteraka2.[root] '(someone) 
# manages to carry out something', manapaka 'to cut'< tapaka2.[root] '(someone) manages to cut sth off', 
# manapitra 'to finish'< tapitra2.[root] '(to) manage to finish something off', manatataka 'to get 
# unstitched'< tataka.[root] '(is) inadvertently unstiched' or 'to manage to unstitch', manatontosa 
# 'to achieve'< tontosa3.[root] --stress on 'to'-'(someone) manages to achieve something', mamaki 
# 'to break'< vaki2.[root] --stress on 'va'--'(is) inadvertently broken by someone', ... }

# Potential AHA, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { mahazo 'to obtain' < azo.[root]'(is) understood/grabbed' ='(someone) understands someone/thing' 
# or '(someone) manages to understand sth/someone', ... }

# Potential A-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { mahai 'to know'< hai.[root] '(is) knowledgeable about' ='(someone) knows something', mahita 
#'to see'< hita.[root] '(is) seen' or 'can be seen', ...}


# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { mihaino 'to listen to something'< haino.[root], heno.[root] '(is) heard' ='(someone) hears 
# someone/something' or '(someone) can hear somebody/something','(someone) manages to hear 
# someone/something', mikaoka 'to make hollow'< kaoka.[root] '(is) hollow' ='to manage to make 
# hollow', mitadidi 'to memorize'<  tadidi.[root] --stress on first 'di'--'(is) remembered by 
# someone' = '(someone) remembers someone/thing' or '(someone) manages to remember someone/thing', 
# mitazana 'to look for someone/something'< tazana.[root] '(is) seen' = 'to manage to see', 
# mitsapa 'to feel for something'<  tsapa.[root] --stress on 'tsa'--'sth is felt by someone' = 
# '(someone) can feel something', mitsinjo 'to keep watch over someone'< tsinjo.[root] 
# '(is) able to be perceived from afar' ='to manage to spot from afar', mizaka 'to carry'<  
# zaka.[root] 'which can be carried by' = '(someone) manages to carry something', ... }


# C.2 - Root with epenthetic 'na' + COMP.ny: SUBJ-GEN
# This set of passive root predicates describe PROCESSES and (C.2) usually take a GEN (on the root) 
# introduced by epenthetic na as well as a sentential subject comprising Complementizer ny:

# { vatra 'be eager to' + ko 'clitic.by.me' + ny + VP = 'I (or someone else) am eager to do something'; 
# tia 'be.loved.intrans' + ko 'clitic.by.me' + ny + VP = 'I (or someone else) love to do something';  ... }


# C.3 - Root with epenthetic 'na' + InflP-Adjunct: SUBJ-GEN
# This set of passive root predicates describe PROCESSES and (C.3) usually take a GEN (root) 
# introduced by an epenthetic na as well as a structure adjoined to the matrix VP:

# { aleo2 '(is) preferred by someone' + ko 'clitic.by.me' + VP = 'I (or someone else) prefer to do
# something', ... }

# E - Root: SUBJ
# This set of passive root predicates describe STATES and typically do not take a GEN:

# { afaka '(is) free', feno.1 '(is).full.STATE', fongotra '(is).eradicated.STATE', gorobaka 
# '(is).pierced through.STATE', kaoka '(is).hollow.STATE', kenda '(is).strangled.STATE', 
# lani --stress on 'la'--'(is).finished.STATE', latsaka '(is).fallen.STATE', lavo '(is). 
# fallen.STATE', levona '(is).dissolved.STATE', mati '(is).dead.STATE', poritra '(is) 
# crushed.STATE', potika '(is).smashed.STATE', potraka '(is).fallen.STATE', potsika, resi 
# '(is)vanquished.STATE', tonga2 '(is).arrived.STATE', raikitra '(is).agreed.upon.STATE', 
# rava '(is).destroyed.STATE', rendrika '(is).sunk.STATE', ripaka '(is).eradicated.STATE', 
# ritra '(is).dried.up.STATE', tanteraka '(is).successfully.completed.STATE', tapaka '(is).
# cut off.STATE', tapitra '(is).be finished.STATE', tataka '(is).be unstiched.STATE',  
# tobaka '(is).overflowing.STATE', tolaka '(is).twisted.STATE', tondraka '(is).overflowing.STATE',
# tontosa '(is).achived.STATE', tratra '(is).caught.STATE', tsotra'(is).straightforward, plain', 
# vaki '(is) be.broken.STATE', voa '(is).hit.STATE', vori '(is).gathered.STATE', ... }


# F - Root: SUBJ-OBJ
# This set of passive root predicates describe PROCESSES and take an NP complement:

# { teraka '(to) have (male/female child) born', tobaka2 '(is) overflowing with something', 
# feno.2 '(is).full of something', tondraka.2 '(is).overflowing with something', tonga.3 
# '(is.to.find.oneself.with) have (guests) arrived', ... }


# Section 2 - Adjective roots

# The following second section shows predicate sequences involving Adjective roots only. The
# predicates listed in this section all have a passive-like meaning like most so-called 
# 'passive roots' and can be subcategorized as adjectives.

# A - Root: SUBJ.COMP.fa
# This set of Adjective root predicates are used to make a STATEMENT and usually take 
# (A) a sentential subject comprising an obligatory Complementizer fa, but the root is not 
# accompanied by a genitive agent nor by GEN:

# { marina 'true' fa S ='(it) is true that S', mazava 'light''(it) is obvious that S', tsara 'good'
# fa S = '(it) is good that S', raikitra 'agreed.upon' fa S = '(it) has been agreed that S', ... }


# C - Root with epenthetic 'na': SUBJ-GEN
# This set of root predicates usually describe STATES and (C) take a GEN (on the root)
# introduced by epenthetic na as well as a subject DP. In addition, the form taken by the final 
# syllable of certain items is provided when the definite article ny follows. The symbol >> 
# indicates the nature of the required change.

# No prefix at all possible for the structure displayed in C with the following roots:
# { jamba 'blind.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='(is) being accidentally made blind by something', 
# jenjin<a> 'overwhelmed.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='(is) being overwhelmed by something (illness)', 
# jihi<tra> >> jihitry 'dead.STATE [root]' + n(a>)y ... ='to be frozen to death due to something (cold)',
# mamo 'drunk.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='becoming drunk due to something', ... }

# No corresponding active voice prefixes (primary) possible on the following Adjective roots:
# { ambani 'low.STATE [root, stress on mba]' + n(a) ='to be located below something', bobo<ka> >> bobo<ky> 
# 'soaked.STATE [root]' + n(a>)y ... ='is soaked by the (water)', empa<ka> 'blistered.STATE [root]'>> 
# empa<ky> + n(a>)y ... ='is blistered because of something', 'kotsa 'wet.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='(is)
# getting wet due to something',  lena 'wet.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='to be wet due to something', 'maina 
# 'dry.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='to be made dry by something', mainti 'black.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='to be 
# turned black due to something', rera<ka> 'tired.STATE [root]' >> rera<ky> + n(a>)y ...= 'to be tired 
# due to something (illness), roti<ka> 'shredded.STATE [root]' >> roti<ky> + n(a>)y ... ='(to) be 
# accidentally shredded by someone/something', sitran<a> 'cured.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='(to) be 
# (rather unexpectedly) cured thanks to something.STATE [root]'(where <...> = devoiced V), rovi<tra> 
#'torn-up.STATE [root]' >> rovi<try> + n(a>)y ... ='to be accidentally torn up by someone', simba 
# 'damaged.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='to be accidentally damaged by someone', takon<a> 'hidden.STATE [root]' 
# + n(a) ='to be in the state of being hidden by something', tampin<a> 'clogged-up.STATE [root]' + n(a) =
# 'to be in the state of being clogged-up', torotoro 'crushed to pieces.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='to be 
# accidentally crushed to pieces', veri 'be lost.STATE [root]' + n(a) ='to be accidentally lost by 
# someone', vita'be done.STATE [root, stress on vi]' + n(a) ='to have been done by someone', ...}

# Potential I-prefix, Intransitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { misasatra 'to busy oneself''< sasa<tra> 'weary.STATE [root]' >> sasa<try> + n(a>)y ... =
# 'to be tired of doing something', ... }



# F - Root: SUBJ-OBJ
# This set of Adjective roots describe STATES/PROCESSES and take an NP object complement as well as a 
# subject DP. The corresponding English translation reflects a relationship involving two entities that 
# can best be glossed as HAVE (as opposed to BE) in general.

# No prefix at all possible for the structure displayed in F with the following Adjective roots:

# { avo [root]'high'(avo orona 'to have a high nose'), antomotra [root]'close at hand'(antomotra azy 
# 'near him/her'), donto [root]'blunt'(donto loha 'to have a blunt head'), fetsi [root]'cunning' (fetsi 
# lahy'(to be) a cunning male'), folo [root]'ten '(folo taona '(to be) ten years of age'), hafa [root]
# 'other'(hafa ray 'to have a different father'), hipoka [root]'crammed' (hipoka mpianatra 'crammed with
# students'), kinga [root]'clever' (kinga saina 'to have a clever mind'), maro [root]'many' (maro anaka 
# 'to have many children'), menatra [root]'to be ashamed of' (menatra azy 'to feel shame towards someone', 
# azy 'accusative.him/her'), ngita [root]'kinky' (ginta volo 'to have kinky hair), njola [root]'cross-eyed' 
# (njola maso 'to have squint eyes'), ori [root] 'wretched poor' (ori saina 'to have a wretched poor mind'), 
# sahaza [root]'suitable' (sahaza azy 'suitable for him/her'), to [root]'be.accepted'(to teni 'to have 
# his/her word accepted' ='to be influential'), sola [root]'bald' (sola loha 'to have a bald head'), 
# vitsi [root]'few' (vitsi mpitsidika 'to have few visitors'), ... }


# Corresponding potential active voice prefixes (primary) are provided along with the relevant roots. 

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { manadala 'to fool someone'< adala [root] 'foolish'(adala olona '(a place has) crazy inhabitants'), 
# manambani 'to demean'< ambani [root]'low'(ambani saina '(to have) a mean mind'), mameno 'to fill'< 
# feno [root]'full'(feno azy '(there are) plenty of them, azy 'accusative.him/her'), manambina 
# 'to bring luck to someone'< ambinina [root]'fortunate'(ambinina azy 'to be fortunate for him/her'), 
# manampi 'to add to something' < ampi [root]'sufficient'(ampy azy 'sufficient for him/her), 
# manabe 'to bring up'< be [root]'big'(be orona 'to have a big nose'), manabetsaka 'to increase'< 
# betsaka [root]'numerous'(betsaka olona 'there are lots of people'), manabori 'to make something 
# round' < bori [root]'round'(bori volo 'to have short hair'), mandiso 'to prove wrong' < diso 
# [root]'wrong'(diso saina 'to have a distorted mind'), mamarina 'to make hoarse'< farina [root]
# 'hoarse'(farim-peo 'with a hoarse voice'), manafohi 'to shorten'< fohi [root]'short'(fohi ranjo 
# '(to have) short legs'), mamotsi 'to whiten' < fotsi [root]'white'(fotsi volo '(to have) white 
# hair'), manakeli 'to make smaller'< keli [root]'small' (keli saina 'to have a small mind'), 
# manalava 'to lenghthen out'< lava [root]'long' (lava orona 'to have a long nose'), manalavitra 
# 'to go away from someone/something' < lavitra [root]'far away' (lavitra ezaka 'to represent 
# a long struggle'), manamaivana 'to lighten'< maivana [root]'light' (maivan-doha 'to be a 
# scatterbrain'), mametaka 'to put in place'< petaka [root]'flat' (petaka orona 'to have a 
# flat nose'), manaratsi 'to vilify'< ratsi [root]'bad' (ratsi fanahi 'to have a bad soul' = 
# 'to be wicked'), manahaka 'to take after someone'< tahaka [root]'similar to'(tahaka azy 
# 'similar to him/her'), maneri 'to force'< teri [root]'tight' (teri trano 'to have a small 
# house'), manatsara 'to improve'< tsara [root]'good' (tsara feo 'to have a nice voice'), 
# mameri 'to cause to lose' < veri [root]'lost' (very entana 'to have lost furniture'), 
# mamita 'to finish' < vita [root]'be done' (vita batisa 'to have been baptised'), 
# mamizana 'to tire someone out'< vizana [root]'tired' (vizan-tsaina 'to have a tired mind'),
# mamoki 'to feed'< voki [root]'full' (voki lainga 'to be satiated with lies'), manazatra 
#'to accustom'< zatra [root]'to be accustomed to something' (zatra an'io 'used to this'), ...}


# I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { miantra 'to show compassion for someone'< antra [root]'compassionate'(antra olona 'to 
# have compassion for people'), ...}

# I-prefix, Intransitive possible, but only the root is relevant:
# { mipetaka 'to stick', intransitive < mametaka 'to stick', transitive < petaka [root]'flat' 
# (petaka orona 'to have a flat nose'); mizatra 'to get accustomed to something', intransitive 
# < manazatra 'to train someone', transitive < zatra [root]'to be accustomed to something' 
# (zatra an'io 'used to this'), ...}



# H - Root: SUBJ-OBLamina
# This set of Adjective roots describe STATES/PROCESSES and take an oblique complement with amina as
# well as a subject DP:

# { masiaka 'to be nasty towards', fali 'happy towards', finaritra 'happy with something', gaga 
# 'astonished', kivi 'discouraged (t-amina 'perf-with)', maika 'be in a hurry about sth', malina 
# 'prudent about sth', reraka 'tired about sth (t-amina 'perf-with)', sahala 'be like someone', 
# sahirana 'to be worried about someone/something', sakodiavatra 'be perplexed about (t-amina 
# 'perf-with)', sanganehana 'be baffled about (t-amina 'perf-with)', sarotini 'difficult about',
# sarotra 'difficult for someone', sasatra 'weary from (t-amina 'perf-with)', sempotra 'out of 
# breath from something (t-amina 'perf-with)', sosotra 'angry towards (t-amina 'perf-with)', 
# taitra 'surprised at something (t-amina 'perf-with)', talanjona 'amazed at (t-amina 'perf-with)',
# tamana 'to be happily used to something', tsara 'good for someone', ...} 

# NOTE: (t-amina 'perf-with) = 'as.a.result.of.something', constituent usually shows up to 
# the right of SUBJ. Note that morpheme t- can also take the value of past tense-marker.
 

# Section 3 - N roots

# The following third section shows predicate sequences involving Noun roots only. The
# predicates listed in this section can all have a passive-like meaning like most so-called 
# 'passive roots' and can be subcategorized as nouns.


# A - Root: SUBJ.COMP.fa
# This set of root predicates can be used as STATEMENTS and usually take (A) a sentential subject 
# comprising an obligatory Complementizer fa, but no GEN:

# {loza fa S = loza 'danger', loza io 'this (is) danger'/loza fa + S '(It) is a danger that S...';
# raharaha fa = raharaha 'business', raharaha io 'this is a problem'/raharaha fa + S ...'(It) is 
# a problem that S...'; soa ihany fa S = soa 'blessing' + ihany 'only' + fa + S '(It) is (really) 
# a blessing that S ...'; zara fa S = zara 'share' + fa + S '(It) is (really) fate that S ...' = 
# something like 'Fate has it someone hardly managed to do something'; ... }


# B.1 - Root with epenthetic 'na': SUBJ.COMP.fa-GEN
# This set of root predicates can be used as STATEMENTS and usually take (A) a sentential subject 
# comprising an obligatory Complementizer fa as well as a GEN (on the root).

# No apparent verbal prefix at all for the relevant roots:
# {zarako fa S = zara 'share', zara-ko 'share.of.mine' + fa + S ='(It) is lucky for me that S, ...';... }

# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the roots are relevant:
# { mitadidi 'to memorize', transitive < tadidi [root] 'is remembered' tadidiko fa S = tadidi + ko fa S
#  'memory.of.mine that S' = 'I recall that s', ... }


# B.2 - Root with epenthetic 'na': SUBJ.COMP.ny-GEN
# This set of Noun root predicates can be used as STATEMENTS and usually take (B) a sentential subject 
# comprising an obligatory Complementizer ny (instead of 'fa') as well as GEN (on the root) 
# introduced by epenthetic na.

# No apparent verbal prefix at all:
# { anjarako ny S = anjara 'share',  anjara-ko 'share-clitic.of.mine' ny S '(It) is my destiny to 
# do something'; ... }

# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the roots are relevant:
# { misafidi 'to deliberately choose'< safidi [root]'choice', safidiko ny S = safidy 'choice', 
# safidi-ko 'choice-clitic.of.mine' ny S '(It) is my choice to S'; miadidi 'to take charge of something'
# < adidi [root] 'charge', adidiko ny S = adidi 'charge', adidi-ko 'charge-clitic.of.mine' ny S 
# '(It) is my charge to S'; miandraikitra 'to take responsibility for something' < andraikitra 
# [root]'responsibility', andraikitrako ny S = andraikitra 'responsibility, job description' 
# andraikitra-ko 'responsibility-clitic.of.mine' ny S '(It) is my responsibility to S'; ... }


# C - Root with epenthetic 'na': SUBJ-GEN
# This set of Noun root predicates describe RELATIONSHIPS and usually (C) require a GEN 
# (on the root) introduced by epenthetic na as well as a subject DP:

# { aba 'father', anabavi 'sister', anadahi 'brother', dada 'father', faralahi 'youngest son', faravavi 
# 'youngest daughter',  hava<na> 'sibling', iraka 'messenger', kapiteni 'captain', komandi 'governor', 
# lahiaivo 'second son in family', lahimatoa 'eldest son in family', mama 'mother',  namana 'friend', 
# ntaolo 'ancestors', ombiasa 'medicine man', rafozana 'in-laws', rahalahi 'brother.of.man', rahavavi 
# 'sister.of.woman', raza<na> 'ancestor', reni 'mother', sakaiza 'intimate friend',  tale 'director', 
# tompo 'owner', tonia 'executive', vadi 'spouse', vinanto 'son/daughter-in-law', voanjo 'colonists', 
# zafi 'grandchild', zafiafi 'great grandchild', zakifeli 'grandchild', zanaka 'offspring', zandri 
# 'younger brother/sister', zaobavi 'sister in law', zaodahi 'brother in law', zoki 'elder brother 
# or sister', andia<ni> 'flock of', ankabeaza<ni> 'the majority of', antso 'call', arahaba 
# 'congratulations', batisa 'baptism', bedi 'scolding', faka<na> 'root', faladia 'sole of the foot
# of someone', fe 'thigh', feo 'voice', fidi 'selection', gogogogo 'lamentations', haitraitra 'fancy',
# hambo 'pretence', handro 'cooking of food', hanta 'indulgences', hetaheta 'thirst', hidi 'lock', 
# horona<na> 'roll of something', lahara<na> 'row of something', lamoka<ni> 'core of (egg)', 
# levenana 'entombment of something', masoivoho 'representative', pi 'winking (of eyes)', rantsana
# 'branch of something', ravi<na> 'leaf of something', saka<ni> 'width of something', sisi<na> 
# 'border', solontena 'delegate', sombi<na> 'fragment of something', vala<na> 'course of something
# (water, discussion)', voa 'fruit of something (tree)', voni 'flower of something (tree)', zana<ka>
# 'child of something (money, moon, letter, land/country)', ... }





# Part 2:  Non-passive stems, affixes and passive


# Section 1: OBJ.1 > SUBJ

# This first section will deal with Passive.1 and its first subdivision, i.e. suffixation with ina.
# Distinct from the so-called passive roots illustrated in Part 1, Malagasy has passive forms based
# on non-passive roots. One major difference between those two types of 'passive' is that 'passive
# roots' do not require any affix at all to acquire a passive-like meaning, whereas 'passive forms
# deriving from non-passive roots' require proper affixation. Here we have another subdivision, i.e.
# Passive.1 as opposed to Passive.2: Passive.2 encodes an oblique argument of the predicate as 
# grammatical subject and requires both a verbal prefix as well as a verbal suffix. Passive.1 on the
# other hand encodes an object argument of the predicate as grammatical subject. An object argument
# can be either a Direct Object (= OBJ.1) or an Indirect Object (= OBJ.2). When a Direct Object becomes
# a grammatical subject of the verb, the latter must take the suffix ina attached to the verbal stem;
# whereas when an Indirect Object becomes a grammatical subject of the verb, the latter must take the
# suffix ana attached to the verbal stem. Note that at this stage, we do not have a verbal prefix
# at all: A verbal prefix will only become necessary with Passive.2 (to be handled in Part 3).
# As far as Passive.1 is concerned, suffixation with ina (promotion of an OBJ.1 to SUBJECT) and
# also suffixation with ana (promotion of an OBJ.2 to SUBJECT) are not accompanied by any manifestation
# of tense as a verbal prefix, at least, in the passive voice form of present tense. However tense 
# amalgamated with lexical aspect reappears when we have a past tense or a future tense in the passive
# voice. See additional illustrative examples which are provided at the following Malagasy website 
# http://users.ox.ac.uk/%7Ecpgl0015/pargram/data/passive-testfile.txt specifically the subset of 
# sentences starting with 'Tsipazana rano ny afo''The fire is being (deliberately) thrown (some) 
# water at'. Because of this behaviour characteristic of promotion of OBJ.1 to SUBJECT and promotion 
# of OBJ.2 to SUBJECT, both of these are subsumed under the label Passive.1 especially since 
# the relevant form for past tense amalgamated with punctual lexical aspect in the passive.1 voice is 
# 'no' simultaneously replacing both the active voice past tense prefix 'n' as well as the lexical 
# durative aspect-marker AN (or I) and 'ho' for the passive voice.1 future tense replacing both the active
# voice future tense 'h' as well as the durative aspect-marker AN (or I) of the active voice verb.


# D.1 - Stem with Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1-OBLag

# From this point onwards, it has to be emphasized that certain forms traditionally and rather 
# loosely labelled 'roots' are in fact (morphologically) stems in that stress is different and 
# meaning is also different, as will become obvious from perusal of relevant items below.

# This set of passive stems describe a DELIBERATE kind of ACTIVITY and (D.1) usually take a 
# genitive agent (on the stem) introduced by the Passive.1 suffix in(a) as well as a subject DP. In
# this first subdivision, we consider stems derived from passive roots, which are verbs.
# The predicate inside the sentence is a stem form to which is affixed the suffix ina, 
# thereby encoding promotion of an OBJ.1 to SUBJ.

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant. What appears within 
# ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manefa 'to carry out', transitive - efa 'done.STATE [root, stress on e]' >> efa 
# [stem, stress on fa] + ina ='(is) being deliberately done/carried out [stem]' or 
#'(is) habitually & deliberately done/carried out [stem]' with suffix.ina', passive past tense =
# n(o) + efa + ina ''was done', passive future tense = h(o) + efa + ina 'will be done'; 
# mamantatra 'to try to find out about something', transitive - fantatra 'known.STATE 
#[root, stress on fan]' >> fantar [stem, stress on tar] + ina ='(is) being deliberately 
# found out about' or '(is) usually & deliberately found out about', passive past tense = 
# no + fantar + ina 'was deliberately found out about', passive future tense = ho + fantar
# + ina 'will be deliberately found out about'; mameno 'to fill up', transitive - feno2 
#'full.STATE' [root, stress on fe] >> feno [ stem, stress on no] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately filled with something' or '(is) usually & deliberately filled with 
# something', passive past tense = no + feno + ina 'was filled', passive future tense = 
# ho + feno + ina 'will be filled'; mamongotra 'to eradicate', transitive - fongotra 
# 'eradicated.STATE [root, stress on fon]' >> fongor [stem, stress on gor] + ina =
#'(is) being deliberately eradicated' or '(is) usually and deliberately eradicated', 
# passive past tense = no + fongor + ina 'was eradicated', passive future tense = 
# ho + fongor + ina 'will be eradicated'; mangorobaka 'to pierce through something', 
# transitive - gorobaka [root]'pierced through.STATE' >> gorobah [stem] + ina ='(is) 
# being deliberately pierced through' or '(is) usually and deliberately pierced through', 
# passive past tense = no + gorobah + ina 'was pierced through', passive future tense = 
# ho + gorobah + ina 'will be pierced through'; manadino 'to forget', transitive - hadino 
# 'forgotten.STATE [root, stress on di]' >> hadino [stem, stress on no] + ina ='(is) 
# being deliberately forgotten' or '(is) usually & deliberately forgotten', passive 
# past tense = no + hadino + ina 'was forgotten', passive future tense = (h(o)>nothing)
# + hadino + ina 'will be forgotten'; mandani 'to finish', transitive - lani2 'finished.STATE
# [root, stress on la]'>> lani2 [stem, stress on ni]' + ina ='(is) being deliberately 
# finished' or '(is) usually & deliberately finished', passive past tense = no + lani + 
# (i)na 'was finished', passive future tense = ho + lani + (i)na 'will be finished'; 
# mandevona 'to dissolve', transitive - levona2 'dissolved.STATE [root, stress on le]>> 
# levon2 [stem, stress on von]' + ina ='(is) being deliberately dissolved by someone' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately dissolved by someone', passive past tense = no + levon
# + ina 'was dissolved', passive future tense = ho + levon + ina 'will be dissolved'; 
# mamotika 'to smash', transitive - potika2 'smashed.STATE [root]' >> 
# poteh [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately smashed by someone' or '(is) usually 
# & deliberately smashed by someone', passive past tense = no + poteh + ina 'was smashed', 
# passive future tense = ho + poteh + ina 'will be smashed'; mamoritra 'to crumple up', 
# transitive - poritra2 'crumpled.STATE [root]' >> poret [stem] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately crumpled by someone' or '(is) usually & deliberately crumpled by 
# someone', passive past tense = no + poret + ina 'was crumpled', passive future 
# tense = ho + poret + ina 'will be crumpled'; manapaka 'to cut', transitive - 
# tapaka 'cut.off.STATE [root]' >> tapah [stem] + ina ='(is) being cut off' or 
# '(is) usually cut off', passive past tense = no + tapah + ina 'was cut', passive 
# future tense = ho + tapah + ina 'will be cut'; manatanteraka 'to bring to its 
# conclusion', transitive - tanteraka 'complete.STATE [root]' >> tanterah [stem] + 
# ina ='(is) being deliberately carried out by someone' or '(is) usually & 
# deliberately carried out by someone', passive past tense = no + tanterah + ina 
# 'was carried out', passive future tense = ho + tanterah + ina 'will be carried out';
# manatontosa 'to achieve', transitive - tontosa3 'achieved.STATE [root, stress on to] >>
# tontosa3 [stem, stress on sa] + ina ='(is) being achieved' or '(is) usually achieved'
# [someone is striving to achieve something], passive past tense = no + tontosa + ina 
# 'was achieved', passive future tense = ho + tontosa + ina 'will be achieved'; 
# manatratra 'to catch up with something', transitive - tratra2 'be.caught.STATE [root] >> 
# tratrar [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately caught/trapped' or '(is) usually & 
# deliberately caught/trapped', passive past tense = no + tratrar + ina 'was trapped', 
# passive future tense = ho + tratrar + ina 'will be trapped'; ... }


# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive or Potential I-prefix, Intransitive/Middle 
# possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to
# be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { mamaki 'to break up', transitive or mivaki 'to be broken up', intransitive vaki1 
# 'be.broken.STATE [root, stress on va] >> vaki1 [stem, stress on ki]' + (i)na ='(is) 
# being deliberately broken by someone' or '(is) usually & deliberately broken by someone',
# passive past tense = no + vaki + (i)na 'was broken', passive future tense = ho + vaki + 
# (i)na 'will be broken'; mamori 'to summon', transitive or mivori 'to be gathered', 
# intransitive - vori2 'be.gathered.STATE [root, stress on vo] >> vori2 [stem, stress on ri]'
# + ina ='(is) being summoned by someone' or '(is) usually summoned by someone', passive past
# tense = no + vori + (i)na 'was summoned', passive future tense = ho + vori + (i)na 'will be 
# summoned'; manjaka, intransitive 'to reign', mizaka (mizaka tena = to be independent), 
# middle - zaka 'bearable.STATE [root, stress on za]' >> zaka [stem, stress on ka] + ina 
# '(is) being stoically/deliberately carried by someone' or '(is) usually stoically/
# deliberately carried by someone', passive past tense = no + zaka + ina 'was stoically 
# carried', passive future tense = ho + zaka + ina 'will be stoically carried'; ... }


# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the stem is relevant. Recall that what 
# appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part 
# of one and the same word:

# { mihaino 'to listen', transitive - haino or heno 'be.heard.STATE [root] >> haino or heno 
# [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately listened to' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# listened to', passive past tense = no + heno + ina 'was listened to', passive 
# future tense = ho + heno + ina 'will be listened to'; mikaoka 'to make hollow', 
# transitive - kaoka 'hollow.STATE [root]'>> kaoh [stem] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately made hollow' or '(is) usually deliberately made hollow', passive past
# tense = no + kaoh + ina 'was made hollow', passive future tense = ho + kaoh + ina 
# 'will be made hollow'; mitadidi 'to memorize', transitive - tadidi 'be.remembered.STATE 
# [root, stress on second syllable] >> tadidi [stem, stress on third syllable] + ina =
# '(is) being memorized by someone' or '(is) usually memorized by someone', passive past
# tense = no + tadidi + (i)na 'was memorized', passive future tense = ho + tadidi + (i)na 
# 'will be memorized'; mitazana 'to watch', transitive - tazana 'be seen.STATE [root]' >> 
# tazan [stem] + ina ='(is) being watched from afar' or '(is) usually watched from afar', 
# mitsapa, passive past tense = no + tazan + ina 'was watched from afar', passive future
#  tense = ho + tazan + ina 'will be watched from afar'; mitsapa 'to touch', tsapa2 
# 'be.felt.STATE [root, stress on tsa] >> tsapa2 [stem, stress on pa] + ina ='(is) 
# being felt' or '(is) usually felt'[to deliberately try to feel someone/thing], passive
# past tense = no + tsapa + ina 'was deliberatly touched', passive future tense = ho + 
# tsapa + ina 'will be deliberately touched'; 'mitsinjo 'to provide protection', 
# transitive - tsinjo 'perception from afar [root]' >> tsinjov [stem] + ina ='(to) be
# deliberately watched', passive past tense = no + tsinjov + ina 'was watched', passive
# future tense = ho + tsinjov + ina 'will be watched'; ... }


# D.2 - Stem with Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1-OBLag

# This set of Adjective stem predicates describe RESULTATIVE STATES, i.e. resulting
# from some DELIBERATE kind of ACTIVITY and usually (D.2) take an OBLag (on the stem)
# as well as a subject DP. In this second subdivision, we consider stems derived from Adjective 
# roots. The predicate inside the sentence is a stem form to which is affixed the suffix ina, 
# thereby encoding promotion of an OBJ.1 to SUBJ.

# No apparent prefix in the present tense of the passive voice. However in the past tense, 
# circumfix no ... ina and in the future tense, circumfix tense ho ... ina surround the 
# relevant stem. For example, torotoroina in the passive present tense, but notorotoroina
# in the past tense and hotorotoroina in the future tense:

# { bado 'stupid.STATE [root, stress on ba] >> bado [stem, stress on do]' + ina ='(is) 
# being deliberately taken for a fool' or '(is) usually & deliberately taken for a fool',
# passive past tense = no + bado + ina 'was taken for a fool', passive future tense = 
# ho + bado + ina 'will be taken for a fool'; be 'big.STATE [root] >> beaz 'big [stem]'
# + ina ='(is) being brought up' or '(is) usually & deliberately brought up', passive 
# past tense = no + beaz + ina 'was brought up', passive future tense = ho + beaz + ina 
# 'will be brought up'; jamba 'blind.STATE [root, stress on ja]'>> jamba [stem, stress 
# on mba] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made blind' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# made blind', passive past tense = no + jamba + ina 'was deliberately blinded', passive
# future tense = ho + jamba + ina 'will be deliberately blinded'; mamo 'drunk.STATE 
# [root, stress on ma]'>> mamo [stem, stress on mo] + ina ='(is) being deliberately 
# made drunk' or '(is) usually & deliberately made drunk', passive past tense = no + 
# mamo + ina 'was deliberately made drunk', passive future tense = ho + mamo + ina 
# 'will be deliberately made drunk'; menatra 'ashamed.STATE [root]' >> menar [stem] + 
# ina ='is being deliberately shamed' or 'is usually & deliberately shamed', passive 
# past tense = no + menar + ina 'was deliberately shamed', passive future tense = ho + 
# menar + ina 'will be deliberately shamed'; ngita 'kinky.STATE [root, stress ngi]'>> 
# ngita [stem, stress on ta] + ina ='is being deliberately made kinky' or 'is usually 
# & deliberately made kinky', passive past tense = no + ngita + ina 'was made kinky', 
# passive future tense = ho + ngita + ina 'will be made kinky'; sola 'bald.STATE 
# [root, stress on so]'>> sola [stem, stress on la] + ina ='(is) being deliberately 
# made bald' or '(is) usually & deliberately made bald', passive past tense = no + 
# sola + ina 'was made bold', passive future tense = ho + sola + ina 'will be made 
# bald'; torotoro 'crushed to pieces.STATE [root, stress on second occurrence of to]'
# >> torotoro [stem, stress on final syllable ro] + ina ='(is) being deliberately 
# crushed to pieces' or '(is) usually & deliberately crushed to pieces', passive 
# past tense = no + torotoro + ina 'was crushed to pieces', passive future tense = 
# ho + torotoro + ina 'will be crushed to pieces'; ... }


# Potential corresponding prefixes possible, but only the Stem is relevant.

# Potential ACTIVE AN(A), Transitive possible, but only the stem is relevant. Recall 
# that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that 
# the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manambani 'to look down upon', transitive - ambani 'low [stem, stress on ni]' + (i)na =
# '(is) being looked down upon' or '(is) usually looked down upon', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + ambani + (i)na 'was looked down upon', passive future tense = h(o) + ambani + 
# (i)na 'will be looked down upon'; manabori 'to trim round', bori 'round.STATE [root, 
# stress on bo]'>> bori [stem, stress on ri] + ina ='(is) being deliberately rounded off' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately rounded off', passive past tense = no + boribori + (i)na 
#'was rounded off', passive future tense = ho + boribori + (i)na 'will be rounded off'; 
# mandiso 'to prove wrong', transitive - diso 'wrong.STATE [root, stress on di]' >> diso 
# [stem, stress on so] + ina ='(is) being proved wrong' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# proved wrong', passive past tense = no + diso + ina 'was proved wrong', passive future 
# tense = ho + diso + ina 'will be proven wrong'; manadombo 'to make blunt', transitive - 
# dombo 'blunt.STATE [root]' >> dombo [stem, stress on mbo] + ina ='(is) being made blunt' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately made blunt', passive past tense = no + dombo + ina 
#'was made blunt', passive future tense = ho + dombo + ina 'will be made blunt'; 
# manempaka 'to peel off', transitive - empaka 'blistered.STATE [root]' >> empah [stem] +
# ina = '(is) being deliberately blistered' or '(is) usually & deliberately blistered', 
# passive past tense = n(o) + empah + ina 'was blistered', passive future tense = h(o) + 
# empah + ina 'will be blistered'; manafai 'to get someone disgusted', transitive - fai 
# 'disgusted.STATE [root]' >> faiz [stem] + ina ='(is) being punished' or '(is) usually 
# & deliberately punished', passive past tense = no + faiz + ina 'was punished', passive 
# future tense = ho + faiz + ina 'will be punished'; mametsi 'to deceive', transitive- 
# fetsi 'sly.STATE [root, stress on fe]' >> fetse [stem, stress on tse] + (i)na = '(is) 
# being deliberately deceived' or '(is) usually & deliberately deceived', passive past 
# tense = no + fetse + (i)na 'was deceived', passive future tense = ho + fetse + (i)na 
# 'will be deceived'; manafisaka 'to flatten', transitive - fisaka 'flat.STATE [root]' > 
# fisah [stem] + ina ='(is) being flattened' or '(is) usually & deliberately flattened', 
# passive past tense = no + fisah + ina 'was flattened', passive future tense = ho + 
# fisah + ina 'will be flattened'; mamotsi 'to whiten', transitive - fotsi 'white.STATE 
# [root, stress on fo]'>> fotsi [stem, stress on tsi] + (i)na ='(is) being whitened' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately whitened', passive past tense = no + fotsi + (i)na 'was 
# whitened', passive future tense = ho + fotsi + (i)na 'will be whitened'; manakivi 
# 'to discourage', transitive - kivi 'discouraged.STATE [root, stress on ki]'>> kivi 
# [stem, stress on vi] + ina ='(is) being deliberately discouraged' or '(is) usually 
# & deliberately discouraged', passive past tense = no + kivi + (i)na 'was deliberately 
# discouraged', passive future tense = ho + kivi + (i)na 'will be deliberately discouraged';
# manakotsa 'to make wet', transitive - kotsa 'wet.STATE [root, stress on ko]'>> kotsa, 
# stress on tsa] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made wet' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# made wet', passive past tense = no + kotsa + ina 'was made wet', passive future tense = 
# ho + kotsa + ina 'will be made wet'; mandavorari 'to perfect', transitive - lavorari 
# 'perfect.STATE [root, stress on ra]'>> lavorari [stem, stress on ri] + (i)na ='(is) 
# being perfected' or '(is) usually & deliberately perfected', passive past tense = 
# no + lavorari + (i)na 'was perfected', passive future tense = ho + lavorari + (i)na 
# 'will be perfected'; manameloka 'to condemn', transitive - melohina = based on meloka 
# 'guilty [root]' >> meloh [stem]'(let.someone/something).be.condemned' + ina  ='(is) 
# being found guilty' or '(is) usually & deliberately found guilty', passive past tense = 
# no + meloh + ina 'was condemned', passive future tense = ho + meloh + ina 'will be 
# condemned'; manamaina 'to dry up', transitive - maina 'dry.STATE [root, stress on ai]'
# >> main [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately dried' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# dried'; manamainti 'to blacken', transitive - mainti 'black.STATE [root]' >> maintis 
# [stress on tis] + ina '(is) being deliberately blackened.[Sloppy Colloquial Malagasy]' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately blackened.[Sloppy Colloquial Malagasy]', passive past 
# tense = no + maintis + ina 'was blackened.[Sloppy Colloquial Malagasy]', passive future
# tense = ho + maintis + ina 'will be blackened.[Sloppy Colloquial Malagasy]'; manapepo 
#'to bump', transitive - pepo 'hollow.STATE [root, stress on pe]'>> pepo [stem, stress on po] 
# + ina ='is being deliberately made a bump to' or 'is usually & deliberately made bumps to', 
# passive past tense = no + pepo + ina 'was bumped', passive future tense = ho + pepo + ina 
# 'will be bumped'; manapotsitra 'to crush', transitive - potsitra 'crushed.STATE [root, 
# stress on po]' >> potsir [stem, stress on tsir] + ina ='(is) being deliberately crushed' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately crushed', passive past tense = no + potsir + ina 
# 'was crushed', passive future tense = ho + potsir + ina 'will be crushed'; mandrotika 
# 'to tear up', transitive - rotika 'shredded.STATE [root, stress on ro]' >> roteh [stem, 
# stress on teh] + ina ='(is) being deliberately shredded' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# shredded', passive past tense = no + roteh + ina 'was shredded', passive future tense = 
# ho + roteh + ina 'will be shredded'; mandrovitra 'to tear up', transitive - rovitra 
# 'torn-up [root, stress on ro]' >> rovit [stem, stress on vit + ina '(is) being torn-up' 
# or '(is) usually torn-up', passive past tense = no + rovit + ina 'was torn up', passive 
# future tense = ho + rovit + ina 'will be torn up'; manahirana 'to bother', transitive - 
# sahirana 'worried [root, stress on hi]' >> sahiran [stem, stress on ran] + ina '(is) 
# being bothered' or '(is) usually & deliberately bothered', passive past tense = no + 
# sahiran + ina 'was deliberately bothered', passive future tense = ho + sahiran + ina 
# 'will be deliberately bothered'; manasaraka 'to sort out', transitive - saraka 'separate
# [root, stress on sa]' >> sarah [stem, stress on rah] + ina ='(is) being separated' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately separated', passive past tense = no + sarah + ina 'was 
# separated', passive future tense = ho + sarah + ina 'will be separated'; manasitrana 
# 'to cause to be cured', transitive - sitrana 'cured.STATE [root, stress on si]' >> 
# sitran [stem, stress on tran] + ina ='(is) being deliberately cured' or '(is) usually 
# & deliberately cured', passive past tense = no + sitran + ina 'was deliberately cured', 
# passive future tense = ho + sitran + ina 'will be deliberately cured'; manahaka 
# 'to emulate', transitive - tahaka 'similar to.STATE [root]'>> tahaf [stem] + ina =
# '(is) being deliberately made similar to' or '(is) usually & deliberately made similar
# to', passive past tense = no + tahaf + ina 'was emulated', passive future tense = 
# ho + tahaf + ina 'will be emulated'; manaitra, transitive - taitra 'surprised, 
# awake.STATE [root]' >> tair [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately surprised/woken up'
#  or '(is) usually & deliberately surprised/woken up', passive past tense = no + tair 
# + ina 'was woken up', passive future tense = ho + tair + ina 'will be woken up'; 
# maneri 'to force', transitive - teri 'tight.STATE [root, stress on te]' >> tere [stem, 
# stress on re] + (i)na = '(is) being tightened up' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# tightened up', passive past tense = no + tere + (i)na 'was tightened up', passive 
# future tense = ho + tere + (i)na 'will be tightened up'; manemboka 'to steam bath', 
# transitive - tsemboka 'sweaty.STATE [root, stress on tsem]' >> tsemboh [stem, stress 
# on boh] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made to sweat' or '(is) usually and 
# deliberately made to sweat', passive past tense = no + tsemboh + ina 'was made 
# to sweat', passive future tense = ho + tsembo + ina 'will be made to sweat'; 
# mamita 'to finish', transitive - vita 'be done.STATE [root, stress on vi]'>> 
# vita [stem, stress on ta] + ina ='(is) being deliberately carried out by 
# someone' or '(is) usually & deliberately carried out by someone', passive past 
# tense = no + vita + ina 'was carried out', passive future tense = ho + vita + ina 
# 'will be carried out'; mamizana 'to tire out', transitive - vizana 'tired.STATE 
# [root, stress on vi]' >> vizan [stem, stress on zan] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately made tired' or '(is) usually & deliberately made tired', passive
# past tense = no + vizan + ina 'was deliberately tired out', passive future 
# tense = ho + vizan + ina 'will be deliberately tired out'; manazatra 'to train', 
# transitive - zatra 'accustomed to.STATE [root, stress on za]' >> zar [stem, 
# stress on zar] + ina ='(is) being deliberately accustomed to' or '(is) usually
# & deliberately accustomed to', passive past tense = no + zar + ina 'was 
# deliberately accustomed to', passive future tense = ho + zar + ina 'will be 
# deliberately accustomed to'; ... } 


# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive or Potential I-prefix, Intransitive
# possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within 
# ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one 
# and the same word:

# { manadanadana 'to cause to be wide open', transitive - danadana [root] >> 
# danadana [stem] 'wide open' + ina ='(is) being deliberately opened widely' or 
#'(is) usually & deliberately opened widely', passive past tense = no + danadana
#  + ina 'was deliberately opened', passive future tense = ho + danadana + ina 
# 'will be deliberately opened'; manaketraka 'to cause to be not stretched', 
# transitive - ketraka 'not stiff.STATE [root]' >> ketrah [stem] + ina ='(is)
# being deliberately made not stiff' or '(is) usually & deliberately made not 
# stiff', passive past tense = no + ketrah + ina 'was deliberately made not stiff', 
# passive future tense = ho + ketrah + ina 'will be deliberately made not stiff';
# manakolepaka 'to cause to limp', transitive - kolepaka 'limping.STATE [root]' >> 
# kolepah [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made to limp' or '(is) usually & 
# deliberately made to limp', passive past tense = no + kolepah + ina 'was made 
# to limp', passive future tense = ho + kolepah + ina 'will be made to limp'; 
# manameloka 'to condemn', transitive - meloka 'culprit.STATE [root]' >> meloh 
# [stem] + ina ='is being deliberately condemned' or 'is usually & deliberately 
# condemned', passive past tense = no + meloh + ina 'was condemned', passive 
# future tense = ho + meloh + ina 'will be condemned'; manatresaka 'to crack', 
# transitive - tresaka 'cracked.STATE [root, stress on tre]' >> tresah [stem, 
# stress on sah] + ina ='(is) being deliberately cracked' or '(is) usually and 
# deliberately cracked', passive past tense = no + tresah + ina 'was deliberately 
# cracked', passive future tense = ho + tresah + ina 'will be deliberately 
# cracked'; mandriatra 'to tear up', transitive - triatra 'torn-up.STATE [root, 
# stress on tria --ia = peak on [i]]' >> triar [stem, ia = peak on [a]] + ina =
# '(is) being deliberately torn-up' or '(is) usually and deliberately torn-up', 
# passive past tense = no + triar + ina 'was deliberately torn up', passive 
# future tense = ho + triar + ina 'will be deliberately torn up'; mamelona 
# 'to feed' or 'to start up', transitive - velona 'alive.STATE [root, stress
# on ve]' >> velom [stem, stress on lom] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made
#  to start/become alive' or '(is) usually & deliberately made to start/become 
# alive', passive past tense = no + velom + ina 'was started', passive future
# tense = ho + velom + ina 'will be started'; ... }


# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates 
# that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { mibodo 'to selfishly claim for oneself', transitive - bodo 'being.infantile.STATE 
# [root]'>> bodo [stem, stress on do] + ina ='(is) being kept for oneself alone' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately kept for oneself alone', passive past tense = no + bodo
# + ina 'was selfishly kept for oneself', passive future tense = ho + dono + ina 'will 
# be selfishly kept for oneself'; 'mitono 'to broil', transitive - tono 'broil.STATE 
# [root, stress on to]' >> tono [stem, stress on no] + ina ='(is) being deliberately 
# broiled' or '(is) usually & deliberately broiled', passive past tense = no + tono + 
# ina 'was broiled', passive future tense = ho + tono + ina 'will be broiled'; ... }


# D.2' - Stem obligatorily comprising Adj prefix HA & Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1-OBLag

# This set of Adjective stems describe RESULTATIVE PROCESSES and take an agent in the 
# genitive (OBLag on the stem) introduced by the Passive.1 suffix ina as well as a subject DP.
# In this subdivision, we consider a number of special stems derived from Adj roots.

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall 
# that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the
# morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manafaingana 'to cause to be quick', transitive - hafainganina = based on faingana 
# 'quick [root]'>> ha-faingan [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately quickened', 
# passive past tense = no + hafaingan + ina 'was quickened', passive future tense = 
# (ho) + hafaingan + ina 'will be quickened'; manafohi 'to cause to be short', transitive 
# - hafohezina = based on fohy 'short [root]'>> ha-fohez [stem] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately shortened', passive past tense = no + hafohez + ina 'was shortened', 
# passive future tense = ho + hafohez + ina 'will be shortened'; manakeli 'to cause 
# to be small', transitive - hakelezina = based on kely 'small [root]'>> ha-kelez 
# [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made smaller', passive past tense = no + 
# hakelez + ina 'was made smaller', passive future tense = (ho) + hakelez + ina 'will 
# be made smaller'; mandalina 'to study in depth', transitive - halalinina = based 
# on lalina 'deep [root]'>> ha-lalin [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately deepened', 
# passive past tense = no + halalin + ina 'was deepened', passive future tense = 
# ho + halalin + ina 'will be deepened'; manalava 'to lenghthen out', transitive - 
# halavaina = based on lava 'long [root]'>> ha-lava [stem] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately lenghthened out', passive past tense = no + halava + ina 'was 
# lenghthened out', passive future tense = (ho) + halava + ina 'will be lenghthened 
# out'; manalavitra 'to go away from', transitive - halavirina = based on lavitra 
# 'far away [root]'>> ha-lavir [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately put at a 
# distance', passive past tense = no + halavir + ina 'was kept at a distance', 
# passive future tense = ho + halavir + ina 'will be kept at a distance'; 
# manalehibe 'to make bigger', transitive - halebiazina = based on lehibe 
# 'big [root]'>> ha-lebiaz [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made bigger', 
# passive past tense = no + halebiaz + ina 'was made bigger', passive future 
# tense = ho + halebiaz + ina 'will be made bigger'; manamainti 'to blacken', 
# transitive - mainti 'black.STATE [root]' >> ha-maintis [stress on tis] + ina 
# '(is) being deliberately blackened.[Standard Malagasy]' or '(is) usually & 
# deliberately blackened.[Standard Malagasy]', passive past tense = no + hamaintis
#  + ina 'was blackened.[Standard Malagasy]', passive future tense = (ho) + hamaintis
#  + ina 'will be blackened.[Standard Malagasy]'; manamaivana 'to lighten', transitive
# - hamaivanina = based on maivana 'light [root]'>> ha-maivan [stem] + ina ='(is) 
# being deliberately lightened', passive past tense = no + hamaivan + ina 'was 
# lightened', passive future tense = ho + hamaivan + ina 'will be lightened'; 
# manamasina 'to sanctify', transitive - hamasinina = based on masina 'holy [root]'>> 
# ha-masin [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately sanctified', passive past tense = 
# no + hamasin + ina 'was sanctified', passive future tense = ho + hamasin + ina 
# 'will be sanctified'; manaratsi 'to vilify', transitive - haratsina = based on 
# ratsi 'bad [root]'>> ha-ratsi [stem] + (i)na ='(is) being deliberately vilified', 
# passive past tense = no + haratsi + (i)na 'was vilified', passive future tense = 
# (ho) + haratsi + (i)na 'will be vilified'; manatsara 'to improve', transitive - 
# hatsaraina = based on tsara 'good [root]'>> ha-tsara [stem] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately improved', passive past tense = no + hatsara + ina 'was improved',
# passive future tense = ho + hatsara + ina 'will be deliberately improved'; 
# manasarotra 'to make more difficult', transitive - hasarotina = based on sarotra 
# 'difficult [root]'>> ha-sarot [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately made difficult', 
# passive past tense = no + hasarot + ina 'was made difficult', passive future tense = 
# (ho) + hasarot + ina 'will be made difficult'; manavao 'to renew', transitive - 
# havaozina = based on vao 'new [root]'>> ha-vaoz [stem] + ina ='(is) being 
# deliberately renewed', passive past tense = no + havaoz + ina 'was renewed', 
# passive future tense = ho + havaoz + ina 'will be renewed'; ... }


# Potential ank-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant:
# { mankatavi 'to cause to grow fat', transitive - hatavizina = based on (ma)tavi 
# 'fat [root without Adj prefix ma]'>> ha-taviz [stem] + ina ='(is) being deliberately
# fattened', passive past tense = no + hataviz + ina 'was fattened', passive future 
# tense = (ho) + hataviz + ina 'will be fattened'; ... }


# D.2''- Stem obligatorily comprising Adj prefix TA & Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1-OBLag

# This set of Adjective stems describe RESULTATIVE PROCESSES and take an agent in the 
# genitive (OBLag on the stem) introduced by the Passive.1 suffix ina as well as a subject DP.
# In this subdivision, we consider a few special stems derived from Adj roots:

# { manamora 'to cause something to be easier', transitive - mora 'cheap', ta + mora + ina 
# '(is) being sold cheap', passive past tense = no + tamora + ina 'was cheapened'; morabe 
# 'very cheap', ta + mora + ina be '(is) being sold very cheap'; ... }


# D.3 - Stem with Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1.COMP.ny-OBLag

# This set of Noun stem predicates designate abstract PROCESSES and 
# usually (D.3) take an OBLag (on the stem) along with a sentential
# subject with Comp.ny. This type of construction is somehow similar 
# to OBJ1 > SUBJ in so far as the relevant Passive suffix is ina.
# In this third subdivision, we consider stems derived from Noun roots.

# Potential AN-prefix possible, but only the Stem is relevant:
# { maniry 'to desire' < iriko ny S = iry 'desire', iri + (i)<na>/ko 'by.me' ny S '(It) is 
# my desire that S'; manaiky 'to accept', root = aiki, eki, ekeko ny S = eki 'agreement.
# [root, stress on e]'>> eke [stem, stress on ke]+ (i)(=passive.suff.ina)/ko 'by.me' 
# ny 'that' = 'I (someone) do accept that S' ='It is all right with me if S --
# with future tense'; ...} 


# D.4 - Stem with Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1.COMP.fa-OBLag

# This set of Noun stem predicates can be used as STATEMENTS and usually
# (D.4) take an OBLag (on the stem) along with a sentential subject 
# with comp.fa. The predicate inside the sentence is a stem form to which is 
# affixed the suffix ina, thereby encoding promotion of an OBJ.1 to SUBJ.

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that 
# the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manamarika 'to underline', transitive - mahiriko fa S = marika 'mark.
# [root, stress on ma]' >> marih '(let.sth).be.marked [stem, stress on rih] + i(na = 
# passive.voice)/ko 'by.me' fa 'that' ...' = '(It) is underlined by me that S'; passive 
# past tense = no + marih + i(na)/ko fa S = '(It) was underlined by me that S',
# passive future tense = ho + marih + i(na)/ko fa S = '(It) will be underlined 
# by me that S'; ... }


# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive or Potential I-prefix, Intransitive 
# possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within ( ... )
# is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the
# same word:

# { manoritra 'to underline', transitive or misoritra 'to become evident', 
# intransitive based on soritiko fa S = soritra 'mark.[root, stress on so]' >> 
# sorit 'be.underlined [stem, stress on rit] + i(i for ina = passive.suff.ina)/ko
# '(is) being underlined.by.me'= '(It) is being underlined by me that S', passive 
# past tense = no + sorit + i(na)/ko fa = '(It) was underlined by me that S ;
# passive future tense = ho + sorit + i(na)/ko fa = '(It) will be underlined 
# by me that S ... }


# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall 
# that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that 
# the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { milaza 'to say'- lazaiko fa S = laza 'saying.[root, stress on la]' >> laza 'say.
# [stem, stress on za] + i(i for ina = passive.voice)/ko 'by.me' fa 'that' = 
# 'I (someone) do say that S, passive past tense = no + laza + i(ko) fa S = '(It) 
# was said by me that S ; mieky 'to accept'- ekeko fa S = eki 'recognition.
# [root, stress on e]'>> eke [stem, stress on ke]+ (i)(=passive.suff.ina)/ko 
# 'by.me' fa 'that' = 'I (someone) recognize the fact that S', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + eke + (i)na/ko fa S ='was accepted/was accepted.by.me that S',
# passive future tense = h(o) + eke + (i)na/ko fa S ='will be accepted/
# accepted.by.me that S'; ... }


# Potential AMP + AHA prefixes, Transitive possible, but only the stem is relevant. 
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates 
# that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { mampahatsiahi 'to remind someone of something', transitive non-primary -  
# tsiahiviko fa S = tsiahi 'remembrance.[root, stress on ia, ia = [e]]' >> stem = 
# tsiahiv '(let.sth).be.recalled [stem, stress on hiv] + i(<na>)ko 'by.me' + fa 'that' S =
# '(It) is recalled by me that S' ='I recall that S', ampahatsiahiviko fa = amp + aha + 
# tsiahiv + i(na)/ko = '(It) is being recalled by me that S', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + amp + aha + tsiahiv + i(na)/ko fa S = '(It) was recalled by me that S',
# passive future tense = h(o) + amp + aha + tsiahiv + i(na)/ko fa S = '(It) will be
# recalled by me that S';  ... }




# D.5 - Stem with Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1-OBLag-InflP.Adjunct

# This set of Noun stem predicates can be used as STATEMENTS and usually (D.5) 
# take an OBLag (on the stem) along with an InflP.Adjunct adjoined to the 
# matrix VP. The predicate inside the sentence is a stem form to which is affixed 
# the suffix ina, thereby encoding promotion of an OBJ.1 to SUBJ.

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall 
# that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the
# morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manasa 'to invite', transitive - asaiko mianatra DP.SUBJ, asa 'invitation.[root, 
# stress on a]'>> asa.[stem, stress on sa], asa [stem] + i(na = passive)/ko 'by.me'...
# 'passive.present.invited-by.me', m + i + anatra present + pref.I + [root.anatra 'advice']
# 'study'; past tense = n(o) + asa + i(na)/ko 'passive.past.invited.by.me' n + ianatra 
# 'past.study''was invited by me was studying'...: ... }



# D.6 - Stem with Passive.1 ina: SUBJ.OBJ1-OBLag

# This set of Noun stem predicates describe DELIBERATE kinds of ACTIVITY and 
# usually (D.6) take an OBLag (on the stem) introduced by the Passive.1 
# suffix ina and with a subject DP. The predicate inside the sentence is a stem 
# form to which is affixed the suffix ina, thereby encoding promotion of an OBJ.1 
# to SUBJ.

# No apparent prefix at all on the relevant root:
# { sembana 'obstacle [root]' >> semban [stem]'(let.someone/something).get.prevented.by'
# + ina ='(is) being prevented by' or '(is) usually & deliberately prevented by', 
# passive past tense = no + semban + ina 'was prevented', passive future tense = 
# ho + semban + ina 'will be prevented'; masaka 'cooked.STATE [root, stress on ma]'
# >> masah [stem, stress on sah]'(let.something).get cooked' + ina ='(is) being 
# cooked' or '(is) usually cooked', passive past tense = no + masah + ina 
# 'was cooked', passive future tense = ho + masah + ina 'will be cooked'; ... }


# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall 
# that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the 
# morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manasazi 'to punish', transitive - sazi 'punishment [root, stress on sa]' >> sazi 
# [stem, stress on zi]'(let someone).get.punished by' + (i)na ='(is) being punished by'
# or '(is) usually & deliberately punished by', passive past tense = no + sazi + (i)na 
# 'was punished', passive future tense = ho + sazi + (i)na 'will be punished'; 
# manasoketa 'to censure', transitive - soketa 'censure [root, stress on ke]' >> 
# soketa [stem, stress on ta]'(let.something).get.censured' + ina ='(is) being 
# censured by' or '(is) usually & deliberately censured by', passive past tense = 
# no + soketa + ina 'was censured', passive future tense = ho + soketa + ina 'will 
# be censured'; manasonia 'to sign', transitive - sonia 'signature [root]' >> 
# soniav [stem]'(let.something).get.signed' + ina ='(is) being signed by' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately signed by', passive past tense = no + soniav + ina 
# 'was signed', passive future tense = ho + soniav + ina 'will be signed'; manatanteraka 
# 'to carry something out', transitive - tanteraka 'completed.STATE[root, stress on te]'
# >> tanterah [stem, stress on rah]'(let.something).get carried out' + ina ='(is) being
# deliberately carried out', passive past tense = no + tanterah + ina 'was carried out', 
# passive future tense = ho + tanterah + ina 'will be carried out'; ... }


# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive or Potential I-prefix, Intransitive 
# possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within 
# ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one 
# and the same word:

# { manendri 'to appoint', transitive or mitendri 'to play (instrument), transitive - 
# tendri 'playing.of.musical.instrument [root, stress on ten]' >> tendre 
# [stem, stress on dre]'(let.something).get.played.by [stem] + (i)na ='(is) 
# being played by' or '(is) usually & deliberately played by', passive past 
# tense = no + tendre + (i)na 'was played', passive future tense = ho + tendre 
# + (i)na 'will be played'; manonona 'to pronounce', transitive or mitonona 
# 'to get pronounced', intransitive tonona 'pronunciation [root]' >> tonon 
# [stem]'(let.something).get.pronounced.by' + ina ='(is) being pronounced by'
#  or '(is) usually & deliberately pronounced by', passive past tense = no + 
# tonon + ina 'was pronounced', passive future tense = ho + tonon + ina 
# 'will be pronounced'; ... }


# Potential I-prefix, Middle (Transitive/Intransitive) possible, but only the 
# Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; 
# the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { misioka 'to whistle', transitive/intransitive - sioka 'whistling [root]' >> 
# sioh [stem]'(let.something).get.whistled' + ina ='(is) being whistled' or 
#'(is) usually & deliberately whistled'; misotro 'to drink', transitive/intransitive 
# -  sotro 'spoon [root, stress on so] >> sotro [stem, stress on tro]'(let.something)
# .get.swallowed.by' + ina = '(is) being swallowed by(liquid) or '(is) usually & 
# deliberately swallowed by', passive past tense = no + sotro + ina 'was drunk', 
# passive future tense = ho + sotro + ina 'will be drunk'; mitahiri 'to save', 
# transitive - tahiri 'saving [root]' >> tahiriz [stem]'(let.something).get.saved' 
# + ina ='(is) being saved by' or '(is) usually & deliberately saved by', passive 
# past tense = no + tahiriz + ina 'was saved', passive future tense = ho + tahiriz 
# + ina 'will be saved'; mitaiza 'to care for', transitive -  taiza 'care [root, 
# stress on ai]' >> teza [stem, stress on za]'(let.someone/something).get.cared.for' 
# + ina ='(is) being care for by' or '(is) usually & deliberately cared for by', 
# passive past tense = no + teza + ina 'was brought up', passive future tense = 
# ho + teza + ina 'will be brought up'; mitantara 'to tell (story), transitive - 
# tantara 'story [root, stress on ta]' >> tantara [stem, stress on ra]'(let.something).
# get.told.by' + ina ='(is) being told by' or '(is) usually & deliberately told by', 
# passive past tense = no + tantara + ina 'was told (a story), passive future tense = 
# ho + tantara + ina 'will be told (a story)'; mitarika 'to lead', transitive - 
# tarika 'leading [root]' >> tarih '(let.something).get.led.by [stem] + ina  or 
# tarit 'be.led.by [stem] + ina  ='(is) being led by' or '(is) usually & deliberately
# led by', passive past tense = no + tarit + ina 'was led', passive future tense = 
# ho + tarit + ina 'will be led'; mitatitra 'to transport', transitive - tatitra 
# 'report, transport [root]' >> tater [stem]'(let.things).get.transported.by' + 
# ina ='(is) being transported by' or '(is) usually & deliberately transported by', 
# passive past tense = no + tanter + ina 'was transported', passive future tense = 
# ho + tanter + ina 'will be transported'; mitehaka 'to applaud', intransitive - 
# tehaka 'clapping.of.hands [root]' >> tehaf [stem]'(let.someone).get.slapped.by' 
# + ina ='(is) being given a slap in the face' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# given a slap by', passive past tense = no + tehaf + ina 'was slapped', passive
# future tense = ho + tehaf + ina 'will be slapped'; ... }





# Section 2: OBJ.2 > SUBJ

# This second section will deal with Passive.1 suffixation with ana. Here we have an 
# Indirect Object promoted to grammatical subject. Recall that Indirect Object is 
# labelled OBJ2, hence the summary OBJ.2 > SUBJ.


# D.7 - Stem with Passive.1 ana: SUBJ.COMP.fa-OBLag

# This set of Noun stem predicates can be used as STATEMENTS and usually (D.7) 
# take an OBLag (on the stem) along with a sentential subject with comp.fa.
# This type of construction is somehow similar to OBJ2 > SUBJ in so far as the relevant
# Passive suffix is ana:

# { inoako fa S = ino'belief', ino + a(na)/ko 'by.me' fa 'that' ... '(It) is believed
# by me that';  ... }


# D.8 - Stem with Passive.1 ana: SUBJ.OBJ2-OBLag

# This set of Noun stem predicates describe DELIBERATE kinds of ACTIVITY and 
# usually (D.8) take an OBLag (on the stem) introduced by the Passive.2 
# suffix ana as well as a subject DP. Note the absence of a Direct Object (OBJ1).
# The predicate inside the sentence is a stem form to which is affixed the suffix 
# ina, thereby encoding promotion of an OBJ.2 to SUBJ.

# No apparent prefix on the relevant root.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates 
# that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { amaniana = based on amani 'urine [root, stress on ma]' >> amani [stem, stress 
# on ni]'apply action of urinating to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being urinated 
# upon' or '(is) usually & deliberately urinated upon', faohana = based on faoka 
# 'wiping [root]' >> faoh [stem]'apply action of wiping to someone/something' + 
# ana ='(is) being swept away' or '(is) usually & deliberately swept away',
# passive past tense = no + faoh + ana 'was swept away', passive future tense = 
# ho + faoh + ana 'will be swept away'; fiazana = based on fia 'hard squeeze 
# [root]' >> fiaz [stem]'apply action of hard squeezing to something' + ana  =
# '(is) being squeezed' or '(is) usually & deliberately squeezed', passive past 
# tense = no + fiaz + ana 'was squeezed', passive future tense = ho + fiaz + 
# ana 'will be squeeed'; inoana = based on ino 'belief [root, stress on i]' >> 
# ino [stem, stress on no]'apply action of believing to someone/something' 
# + ana = '(is) being believed' or '(is) usually believed',


# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates 
# that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { mandaka 'to kick', transitive - dakana = based on daka 'kick [root, stress on da] >>
# daka [stem, stress on ka]'apply action of kicking to someone/something' + (a)na  =
# '(is) being kicked' or '(is) usually & deliberately kicked', passive past tense = 
# no + daka + (a)na 'was deliberately kicked', passive future tense = ho + daka + (a)na 
# 'will be deliberately kicked'; maniraka 'to send', transitive - irahana = based on iraka
# 'mission [root]' >> irah [stem]'give a mission to someone' + ana ='(is) being given
# a mission' or '(is) usually & deliberately given missions', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + irah + ana 'was given a mission', passive future tense = h(o) + irah + ana 
# 'will be given a mission'; manandrana 'to try something', transitive - andramana = 
# based on andrana 'trial [root]' >> andram [stem]'apply action of trying to something'
# + ana ='(is) being attempted' or '(is) usually & deliberately attempted', passive 
# past tense = n(o) + andram + ana 'was attempted', passive future tense = h(o) + 
# andram + ana 'will be attempted'; mangadi 'to dig', transitive - angadiana = 
# based on angadi 'spade [root, stress on nga]' >> angadi [stem, stress on di]
# 'apply action of using spade' + ana 'apply action of using spade to something' = 
# '(is) being dug' or '(is) usually & deliberately dug', passive past tense = n(o) 
# + angadi + ana 'was dug up', passive future tense = h(o) + angadi + ana 'will be 
# dug up'; mandimbi 'to succeed someone', transitive - dimbasana = based on dimbi 
# 'successor [root]' >> dimbas [stem]'apply action of succeeding to someone' + ana =
# '(is) being succeeded' or '(is) usually & deliberately succeeded', passive past 
# tense = no + dimbas + ana 'was succeeded', passive future tense = ho + dimbas + 
# ana 'will be succeeded'; mandoro 'to burn', transitive - doroana = based on doro 
# 'action of burning [root, stress on do]'>> doro [stem, stress on ro]'apply action
# of burning to something' + ana ='(is) being burned' or '(is) usually & deliberately
# burned', passive past tense = no + doro + ana 'was burnt', passive future tense =
# ho + doro + ana 'will be burnt'; manemboka 'to steam bath', transitive - embohana = 
# based on emboka 'incense [root]' >> emboh [stem]'apply action of steam bathing to 
# someone or something' + ana ='(is) being steam bathed' or '(is) usually  and 
# deliberately steam bathed', passive past tense = n(o) + emboh + ana 'was steam bathed', 
# passive future tense = h(o) + emboh + ana 'will be steam bathed'; mamandrika 
# 'to trap, to subscribe to something', transitive - fandrihana = based on fandrika 
# 'trap [root]' >> fandrih [stem]'apply action of setting up a trap to someone' + ana =
# '(is) being trapped' or '(is) usually & deliberately trapped', passive past tense = 
# no + fandrih + ana 'was trapped', passive future tense = ho + fandrih + ana 'will 
# be trapped'; mamantsona 'to equip with pipe', transitive  or manafantsona, transitive 
# - fantsonana = based on fantsona 'drainpipe [root]' >> fantson [stem]'apply action 
# of providing drainpipe to something' + ana ='(is) being equipped with drainpipe' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately equipped with drainpipe', passive past tense = 
# no + fantson + ana 'was equipped with pipe', passive future tense = ho + fantson 
# + ana 'will be equipped with pipe'; mamitaka 'to deceive', transitive - fitahana = 
# based on fitaka 'deceit [root]' >> fitah [stem]'apply action of deceiving to someone' 
# + ana ='(is) being deceived' or '(is) usually & deliberately deceived', passive past 
# tense = no + fitah + ana 'was deceived', passive future tense = ho + fitah + ana 
# 'will be deceived'; manafatra 'to send a message to someone', transitive - hafarana = 
# based on hafatra 'message [root]'>> hafar [stem]'apply action of giving a message 
# to someone (stem)' + ana  ='(is) being given a message' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# given messages', passive past tense = n(o) + (h)afar + ana 'was given a message', 
# passive future tense = (ho) + hafar + ana 'will be given a message'; manitsaka 'to 
# trample', transitive - hitsahana = based on hitsaka 'footprint [root]' >> hisah 
# [stem]'apply action of making footprint to someone/something' + ana = '(is) being 
# trampled' or '(is) usually & deliberately trampled', passive past tense = n(o) + 
# (h)itsah + ana 'was trampled', passive future tense = (ho) + hitsah + ana 'will be
# trampled'; manoroka 'to kiss', transitive - orohana = based on oroka 'kiss [root]' 
# >> oroh [stem]'apply action of kissing to someone' + ana = '(is) being kissed' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately kissed', passive past tense = n(o) + oroh + ana 'was 
# kissed', passive future tense = h(o) + oroh + ana 'will be kissed'; mandrahona 
# 'to threaten', transitive - rahonana = based on rahona 'cloud [root]' >> rahon 
# [stem]'apply action of attracting storm to someone' + ana = '(is) being threatened' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately threatened', passive past tense = no + rahon + ana 
# 'was threatened', passive future tense = ho + rahon + ana 'will be threatened'; 
# mandranitra 'to sharpen', transitive - ranitana = based on ranitra 'sharpness 
# [root]' >> ranit [stem] 'apply action of providing sharpness to something' + ana  =
# '(is) being sharpened' or '(is) usually & deliberately sharpened', passive past 
# tense = no + ranit + ana 'was sharpened', passive future tense = ho + ranit + ana 
# 'will be sharpened'; mandrara 'to forbid', transitive - rarana = based on rara 
# 'prohibition [root, stress on first syllable] >> rara [stem, stress on second 
# syllable]'apply action of prohibiting to something' + (a)na  ='(is) prohibited', 
# passive past tense = no + rara + (a)na 'was prohibited', passive future tense = 
# ho + rara + (a)na 'will be prohibited'; mandrora 'to spit', transitive/intransitive
# - rorana = based on rora 'spittle [root, stress on ro]' >> rora [stem, stress on ra]
# 'apply action of throwing spittle to someone/something' + (a)na  ='(is) being spat 
# upon' or '(is) usually & deliberately spat upon', passive past tense = no + rora + 
# (a)na 'was pitted at', passive future tense = ho + rora + (a)na 'will be spitted at'; 
# manasilaka 'to splinter', transitive - silahana = based on silaka 'splinter [root]'
# >> silah [stem]'apply action of splintering to something' ana ='(is) being splintered off' 
# or (is) usually & deliberately splintered off', passive past tense = no + silah + ana 
# 'was splintered', passive future tense = ho + silah + ana 'will be splintered'; 
# manombina 'to take a bite out of something', transitive - sombinana = based on 
# sombina 'fragment [root]' >> sombin [stem]'apply action of taking a fragment 
# to something' + ana ='(is) being taken a bite out of' or '(is) usually & deliberately
# taken a bite out of', passive past tense = no + sombin + ana 'was taken a bite out of',
# passive future tense = ho + sombin + ana 'will be taken a bite out of'; manafika 
# 'to besiege', transitive/intransitive - tafihana = based on tafika 'army [root]' 
# >> tafih [stem]'apply action of besieging to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being
#  besieged' or '(is) usually & deliberately besieged', passive past tense = no + tafih
# + ana 'was besieged', passive future tense = ho + tafih + ana 'will be besieged'; 
# mamangi 'to pay a visit', transitive/intransitive - vagiana = based on vangi 'visit 
# [root, stress on van]'>> vangi [stem, stress on ngi]'pay a visit to someone' + ana =
# '(is) being paid a visit to' or "(is) usually & deliberately paid a visit to', 
# passive past tense = no + vangi + ana 'was paid a visit to', passive future tense = 
# ho + vangi + ana 'will be paid a visit to'; mamozona 'to put a necklance to someone', 
# transitive - vozonana = based on vozona 'neck [root]' >> vozon [stem]'apply action 
# of imposing a necklace onto someone' + ana ='(is) being subjugated' or '(is) usually
# & deliberately subjugated', ... } 


# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive or Potential I-prefix, Intransitive 
# possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within 
# ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one 
# and the same word:

# { manaloka 'to give shelter', transitive or mialoka, intransitive - alofana = 
# based on aloka 'shadow [root]'>> alof [stem]'provide someone with shelter' + ana =
# '(is) being sheltered' or'(is) usually & deliberately sheltered', passive past 
# tense = n(o) + alof + ana 'was sheltered', passive future tense = h(o) + alof 
# + ana 'will be sheltered'; mandoaka 'to perforate', transitive or miloaka 
# 'to have a hole', intransitive - loahana = based on loaka 'hole [root]' >> 
# loha [stem]'apply action of perforating to something' + (a)na ='(is) being 
# perforated' or '(is) usually & deliberately perforated', passive past tense = 
# no + loha + (a)na 'was perforated', passive future tense = ho + loha + (a)na 
# 'will be perforated'; manavaka 'to sort out', transitive or miavaka 'to be 
# separate', intransitive - avahana = based on avaka 'separation [root]' >> 
# avah [stem]'apply action of separating to something' + ana ='(is) being 
# discarded' or '(is) usually & deliberately discarded', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + avah + ana 'was separated', passive future tense = h(o) + avah + ana 
# 'will be separated'; manavotra 'to deliver', transitive or miavotra 'to 
# self-deliver', intransitive - avotana = avotra 'redemption [root]' >> 
# avot [stem] 'apply action of redeeming to someone' + ana ='(is) being 
# redeemed' or '(is) usually & deliberately redeemed', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + avot + ana 'was redeemed', passive future tense = h(o) + avot + ana 
# 'will be redeemed'; mandoboka 'to give a loud thump', transitive or midoboka, 
# intransitive  dobohana = based on doboka 'loud noise [root]' >> doboh [stem]
# 'give a loud thump to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being given a loud thump' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately given a loud thump', passive past tense = no + 
# doboh + ana 'was given a loud thump to', passive future tense = ho + doboh + ana
#  'will be given a loud thump; mandoka 'to flatter', transitive or midoka 'to self-
# flatter', middle (tena) dokafana = based on doka 'praise [root]'>> dokaf [stem]
# 'apply action of praising to someone' + ana ='(is) being praised' or '(is) usually
#  & deliberately praised', passive past tense = no + dokaf + ana 'was praised',
# passive future tense = ho + dokaf + ana 'will be praised'; manevoka 'to give a 
# steam bath to something', transitive or mievoka 'to inhale', intransitive evohana = 
# based on evoka 'inhalation, stem bath [root] >> evoh [stem]'apply action of steam 
# bath to something' + ana ='(is) being steam bathed' or '(is) usually & deliberately 
# steam bathed', passive past tense = n(o) + evoh + ana 'was steam bathed', passive 
# future tense = h(o) + evoh + ana 'will be steam bathed'; mamafa 'to sweep', 
# transitive or mifafa, intransitive fafana = based on fafa 'sweep [root, stress 
# on first syllable]' >> fafa [stem, stem on second syllable]'give something a 
# sweeping' + (a)na ='(is) being swept' or '(is) usually & deliberately swept', 
# passive past tense = no + fafa + (a)na 'was swept', passive future tense = 
# ho + fafa + (a)na 'will be swept'; mamantsika 'to nail something', transitive 
# or mifantsika 'to be nailed', intransitive - fantsihana = based on fantsika 
# 'nail [root]' >> fantsih [stem]'apply action of nailing to something'+ ana  =
# '(is) being nailed' or '(is) usually & deliberately nailed', passive past tense = 
# no + fantsih + ana 'was nailed', passive future tense = ho + fantsih + ana 'will be
# nailed'; mamarana 'to conclude something', transitive or mifarana 'to end', 
# intransitive - faranana = based on farany 'end, conclusion [root]' >> faran 
# [stem]'apply action of concluding to something' + ana ='(is) being concluded' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately concluded', passive past tense = no + faran + ana 
# 'was concluded', passive future tense = ho + faran + ana 'will be concluded'; 
# mametra 'to restrict', transitive or mifetra 'to be restricted', intransitive - 
# ferana = based on fetra 'limitation, restriction [root]' >> fer [stem]'apply 
# action of restricting to something' + ana ='(is) being delimited/restricted' or 
#'(is) usually & deliberately delimited/restricted', passive past tense = no + fer 
# + ana 'was restricted', passive future tense = ho + fer + ana 'will be restricted'; 
# manahi 'to dry something in the sun', transitive or miahi 'to dry in the sun', 
# intransitive - hahazana = based on hahi 'drying in the sun [root]' >> hahaz [stem]
# 'apply action of drying in the sun to something' + ana ='(is) being dried in the sun'
# or '(is) usually & deliberately dried in the sun', passive past tense = n(o) + 
# (h)ahaz + ana 'was dried', passive future tense = h(o) + (h)ahaz + ana 'will 
# be dried'; maneti 'to give a haircut', transitive or miheti 'to have a haircut', 
# intransitive - hetezana = based on hety 'scissors [root]'>> hetez [stem]'apply 
# action of giving a haircut to someone','give a haircut' + ana ='(is) being given
# a haircut' or '(is) usually & deliberately given a haircut', passive past tense = 
# no + hetez + ana 'was given a haircut', passive future tense = ho + hetez + ana 
# 'will be given a haircut'; manidi 'to lock', transitive or mihidi 'to be locked', 
# intransitive - hidiana = based on hidi 'lock [root, stress on hi]' >> hidi 
# [stem, stress on di]'apply action of locking to something' + ana ='(is) being 
# locked' or '(is) usually & deliberately locked', passive past tense = no + hidi 
# + ana 'was locked', passive future tense = ho + hidi + ana 'will be locked'; 
# mandafika 'to provide with a bedding', transitive or milafika 'to have a bedding', 
# intransitive - lafihana = based on lafika 'bedding [root]' >> lafih [stem] 
# 'apply action of providing bedding to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being 
# provided some bedding to be put under them/it','(is) being provided with a 
# bedding put under them' or '(is) usually & deliberately provided with a 
# bedding put under them', passive past tense = no + lafih + ana 'was provided
# with a bedding put under them', passive future tense = ho + lafih + ana 
# 'will be provided with a bedding put under them; mandavaka 'to perforate', 
# transitive or milavaka 'to have a hole in it', intransitive - lavahana = 
# based on lavaka 'hole --potentially big--[root]' >> lavah [stem]'apply 
# action of making a hole to something' + ana  ='(is) being perforated' or 
# '(is) usually perforated', passive past tense = no + lavah + ana 'was 
# perforated', passive future tense = ho + lavah + ana 'will be perforated'; 
# mandoaka 'to perforate', transitive or miloaka 'to have a hole in it', 
# intransitive loahana = based on loaka 'hole [root]' >> loha [stem]'apply 
# action of making a hole to something' + (a)na  = '(is) being perforated' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately perforated', passive past tense = 
# no + loah + ana 'was perforated', passive future tense = ho + loah + ana 
# 'will be perforated'; mandoko 'to paint something', transitive or miloko 
# 'to be painted', intransitive - lokoana = based on loko 'paint [root, 
# stress on lo]'>> loko [stem, stress on ko]'apply action of applying 
# paint to something' + ana  = '(is) being painted' or '(is) usually &
# deliberately painted', passive past tense = no + loko + ina 'was painted', 
# passive future tense = ho + loko + ina 'will be painted'; manapika 
# 'to switch off', transitive or mipika 'to be switched off', intransitive 
# - pihana = based on pika 'click of knife [root]', pih [stem]'apply action
# of clicking to something' + ana  ='(is) being clicked/shut down' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately shut down', passive past tense = no + pih + ana 
# 'was shut down', passive future tense = ho + pih + ana 'will be shut down'; 
# mandrafitra 'to give shape to something', transitive or mirafitra 'to be shaped', 
# intransitive - rafetana = based on rafitra 'construction, shape [root]' >> 
# rafet [stem]'apply action of giving shape to something' + ana ='(is) being
# shaped' or '(is) usually & deliberately shaped', passive past tense = 
# no + rafet + ana 'was shaped', passive future tense = ho + rafet + ana 
# 'will be shaped'; mandrava 'to destroy', transitive or mirava 'to be destroyed', 
# intransitive - ravana = based on rava 'destruction [root, stress on ra]' >> 
# rava [stem, stress on va] 'bring destruction to something' + (a)na ='(is) 
# being destroyed' or '(is) usually & deliberately destroyed', passive past 
# tense = no + rava + (a)na 'was destroyed', passive future tense = ho + 
# rava + (a)na 'will be destroyed'; manolo 'to replace', transitive or 
# misolo 'to be replaced', intransitive - soloana = based on solo 
# 'substitute [root, stress on so]' >> solo [stem, stress on lo] 
# 'apply action of providing a substitute to someone' + ana ='(is) 
# being replaced' or '(is) usually & deliberately replaced', passive 
# past tense = no + solo + ana 'was replaced', passive future tense = 
# ho + solo + ana 'will be replaced'; manoratra 'to write', transitive 
# or misoratra 'to be written', intransitive - soratana = based on soratra 
# 'letter [root]' >> sorat [stem]'apply action of writing to something' + ana =
# '(is) being written' or '(is) usually & deliberately written', passive past 
# tense = no + sorat + ana 'was written', passive future tense = ho + sorat + ana
# 'will be written'; manoritra 'to underline', transitive or misoritra 
#'to be underlined', intransitive - soritana = based on soritra 'mark [root]' >>
# sorit [stem] 'apply action of providing a mark to something' + ana ='(is) being
# underlined' or '(is) usually & deliberately underlined', passive past tense = 
# no + sorit + ana 'was marked', passive future tense = ho + sorit + ana 'will 
# be marked'; mamali 'to answer', transitive or mivali 'to be answered', 
# intransitive - valiana = based on vali 'answer' [root, stress on va] >> 
# vali [stem, stress on li]'give an answer to someone/something' + ana  =
# '(is) being answered' or '(is) usually & deliberately answered', passive
# past tense = no + vali + ana 'was answered', passive future tense = 
# ho + vali + ana 'will be answered'; ... }


# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates 
# that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { miaro 'to protect', transitive - arovana = based on aro 'protection [root]' >> 
# arov [stem]'give someone/something protection' + ana  ='(is) being protected' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately protected', passive past tense = n(o) + arov + ana 
# 'was protected', passive future tense = h(o) + arov + ana 'will be protected'; 
# miava 'to weed', transitive - avana = based on ava 'weeding [root, stress on a]' 
# ava [stem, stress on va]'apply action of weeding to something'+ (a)na = '(is) 
# being weeded' or '(is) usually & deliberately weeded', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + ava + (a)na 'was weeded', passive future tense = h(o) + ava + (a)na 
# 'will be weeded'; 'mifantina 'to sort out', transitive - fantenana = based 
# on fantina 'selection, sorting out [root]' >> fanten [stem]'apply action of 
# sorting out to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being selected' or '(is) usually
#  & deliberately selected', passive past tense = no + fanten + ana 'was sorted out',
#  passive future tense = ho + fanten + ana 'will be sorted out'; migoka 'to swallow', 
# transitive - gohana = based on goka 'action of eagerly sucking liquid [root]' >> 
# goh [stem]'apply action of sucking to something' + ana  ='(is) being sucked in' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately sucked in', passive past tense = no + goh + ana 
# 'was sucked in', passive future tense = ho + goh + ana 'will be sucked in'; 
# miharatra 'to shave', transitive - haratana = based on haratra 'shave [root]' >> 
# harat [stem]'apply action of giving a shave to someone' + ana ='(is) being shaved' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately shaved', passive past tense = no + harat + ana 
# 'was shaved', passive future tense = h(o) + (h)arat + ana 'will be shaved'; 
# mikaroka 'to search', transitive  - karohana = based on karoka 'seeking, action
# of seeking [root]' >> karoh [stem]'apply action of searching to someone/something'
# + ana ='(is) being searched' or '(is) usually searched', passive past tense = 
# no + karoh + ana 'was searched', passive future tense = ho + karoh + ana 'will 
# be searched'; mikasoka 'to rub', transitive - kasohana = based on kasoka 
# 'rubbing [root]' >> kasoh [stem]'apply action of rubbing to something' + ana = 
# '(is) being rubbed' or '(is) usually & deliberately rubbed', passive past tense =
# no + kasoh + ana 'was rubbed', passive future tense = ho + kasoh + ana 'will 
# be rubbed'; mikepoka 'to consume with a crunching noise', transitive - kepohana =
# based on kepoka 'crunching sound [root]' >> kepoh [stem] 'apply action of 
# crunching with sound to something' + ana ='(is) being resoundingly crunched' 
# or '(is) usually & deliberately resoundingly crunched', passive past tense = 
# no + kepoh + ana 'was resoundingly crunched', passive future tense = ho + kepoh
# + ana 'will be resoundingly crunched'; mikiki 'to scrape', transitive - kikisana = 
# based on kiki 'scraping [root, stress on first syllable]' >> kikis [stem on kis]
# 'apply action of scraping to something' + ana ='(is) being scraped' or '(is) 
# usually & deliberately scraped', passive past tense = no + kikis + ana 'was 
# scraped', passive future tense = ho + kikis + ana 'will be scraped'; misandoka 
# 'to pretend', transitive- sandohana = based on sandoka 'fraud [root]' >> 
# sandoh [stem]'apply action of deceiving to something' + ana  ='(is) being 
# falsely claimed' or '(is) usually & deliberately falsely claimed', passive 
# past tense = no + sandoh + ana 'was falsely claimed', passive future tense = 
# ho + sandoh + ana 'will be falsely claimed'; misatroka 'to wear a hat', 
# middle - satrohana = based on satroka 'hat [root]' >> satroh [stem]'apply 
# action of putting on (a hat) to someone'+ ana ='(is) being put on (hat)' 
# or '(is) usually put on', passive past tense = no + satroh + ana 'was put 
# on (hat)', passive future tense = ho + satroh + ana 'will be put on (hat)'; 
# misava 'to search, inspect', transitive - savana = based on sava 'search 
# [root, stress on sa]' >> sava [stem, stress on va]'apply action of 
# searching to someone/something' + (a)na ='(is) being searched' or '(is) 
# usually & deliberately searched', passive past tense = no + sava + (a)na 
# 'was searched', passive future tense = ho + sava + (a)na 'will be searched';
# misoroka 'to weed', transitive - sorohana = based on soroka 'weeding [root]'
# >> soroh [stem]'apply action of weeding to something' + ana ='(is) being 
# weeded' or '(is) usually & deliberately weeded', passive past tense = 
# no + soroh + ana 'was weeded', passive future tense = ho + soroh + ana 
# 'will be weeded'; mitandrina 'to mind', middle (transitive/intransitive)
# -  tandremana = based on tandrina 'attention [root]' >> tandrem [stem]
# 'apply action of paying attention to someone/something' + ana = (is) being
# taken care of' or '(is) usually & deliberately taken care of', passive 
# past tense = no + tandrem + ana 'was paid attention to', passive future 
# tense = ho + tandrem + ana 'will be paid attention to'; mitanika 'to boil', 
# transitive - tanehana = based on tanika 'boiling [root]' >> taneh [stem] 
# 'apply action of boiling to something' + ana ='(is) being boiled' or 
# '(is) usually & deliberately boiled', passive past tense = no + taneh 
# + ana 'was boiled', passive future tense = ho + taneh + ana 'will be boiled';
# mitantana 'to take by the hand', transitive - tantanana = based on tantana
# 'hand-holding [root]' >> tantan [stem]'apply action of giving a holding 
# hand to someone' + ana  = '(is) being led by the hand' or '(is) usually
# & deliberately led by the hand', passive past tense = no + tantan + ana 
# 'was led', passive future tense = ho + tantan + ana 'will be led'; mitarika 
# 'to lead, transitive - tarihana = based on tarika 'pulling, leading along 
# [root]' >> tarih [stem]'apply action of pulling to someone (stem)' + ana =
# '(is) being led/pulled' or '(is) usually & deliberately led/pulled', 
# passive past tense = no + tarih/tarit + ana 'was pulled', passive 
# future tense =  ho + tarih/tarit + ana 'will be pulled'; mitetika 
# 'to cut up', transitive - tetika 'incision, cutting' (root)' >> teteh 
# 'apply action of cutting up to something (stem)' + ana  ='(is) being
# cut up' or '(is) usually & deliberately cut up', passive past tense = 
# no + teteh + ana 'was cut up', passive future tense = ho + teteh + ana 
# 'will be cut up'; mitevika 'to pierce something' or 'to be pierced', 
# middle (transitive/intransitive) - tevehana = based on tevika 'piercing
# [root]' >> teveh [stem] 'apply action of piercing to something' + ana  =
# '(is) being pierced' or (is) usually & deliberately pierced', passive 
# past tense = no + teveh + ana 'was pierced', passive future tense = 
# ho + teveh + ana 'will be pierced'; ... }




# D.9 - Stem with Passive.1 ana: SUBJ.OBJ2-OBLag

# This set of Adjective stem predicates describe DELIBERATE kinds of ACTIVITY
# and usually (D.9) take an OBLag (on the stem) introduced by the Passive.2 suffix 
# ana and with a subject DP. Note the absence of a Direct Object (= OBJ1).
# An Indirect Object (= OBJ.2) has been promoted to grammatical subject (= SUBJ). 
# The predicate is a stem form taking the suffix ana.

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem is relevant.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that 
# the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manafaka 'to free someone', transitive - afaka 'be.free.STATE.[ root = afaka, stress on a]' >>
# afah [stem, stress on fah]'apply action of freeing to someone]' + ana ='(is) being deliberately 
# freed by someone' or '(is) usually deliberately freed by someone', passive past tense = 
# n(o) + afah + ana 'was freed', passive future tense = h(o) + afah + ana 'will be freed'; 
# mandodona 'to get someone to hurry', transitive -  dodona 'be.in a hurry.STATE [root, 
# stress on first do]' >> dodon [stem, stress on don]'apply action of putting pressure 
# onto someone' + ana ='(is) being pressured' or '(is) usually pressured', passive 
# past tense = no + dodon + ana 'was put under pressure', passive future tense = 
# ho + dodon + ana 'will be put under pressure'; manafoana 'to cancel', transitive 
# - foana 'empty'[root, stress on oa [= o] >> foan [stem, stress on a]'apply action
# of cancelling to something' + ana 'actively proclaim cancellation to something' =
# '(is) being cancelled' or '(is) usually cancelled', passive past tense = no + foan 
# + ana 'was cancelled', passive future tense = ho + foan + ana 'will be cancelled'; 
# manimba 'to destroy something', transitive - simba 'damaged [root, stress on si]'
# + (a)na >> simba [stem, stress on mba]'apply action of destroying to something' + 
# ana ='(is) being deliberately damaged' or '(is) usually deliberately damaged', 
# passive past tense = no + simba + (a)na 'was deliberately destroyed', passive 
# future tense = ho + simba + (a)na 'will be deliberately destroyed'; mamasoka 
# 'to shame someone', transitive - vasoka "discoloured.STATE.[root, stress on va]' >> 
# vasoh [stem, stress on soh] 'apply action of discoloring to someone' + ana =
# '(is) being deliberately shamed' or '(is) usually and deliberately shamed', 
# passive past tense = no + vasoh + ana 'was deliberately shamed', passive 
# future tense = ho + vasoh + ana 'will be deliberately shamed'; ... } 


# Potential Either AN(A)-prefix, Transitive or Potential I-prefix, Intransitive 
# possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within ( ... ) 
# is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the
# same word:

# { mamarana 'to end something', transitive or mifarana 'to be finished', intransitive
#  - farani 'end' [root, stress on fa]'>> faran [stem, stress on ran]'apply action of 
# putting an end to something' + ana ='(is) being concluded' or '(is) usually concluded',
# passive past tense = no + faran + ana 'was concluded', passive future tense = ho + 
# faran + ana 'will be concluded'; managorobaka 'to pierce through something', transitive
# or migorobaka 'to be pierced through', intransitive - gorobaka 'pierced through.STATE 
# [root, stress on ro]' >> gorobah [stem, stress on bah]'apply action of piercing through
# to something' + ana ='(is) being pierced through' or '(is) usually pierced through', 
# passive past tense = no + gorobah + ana 'was pierced through', passive future tense = 
# ho + gorobah + ana 'will be pierced through'; mandrava 'to destroy something', transitive
# or mirava 'to be destroyed', intransitive - rava2 'destroyed.STATE [root, stress on ra]'
# >> rava2 [stem, stress on va]''apply action of destroying to something' + ana ='(is) 
# being deliberately destroyed by someone', passive past tense = no + rava + (a)na 'was 
# deliberately destroyed'; manasaraka 'to separate something', transitive or misaraka 
# 'to be separate', intransitive - saraka 'separate' [root, stress on sa] >> sarah [stem, 
# stress on rah]'apply action of separating to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being 
# separated' or '(is) usually separated', passive past tense = no + sarah + ana 'was 
# separated', passive future tense = ho + sarah + ana 'will be separated'; manakona 
# 'to hide someone/something', transitive or mitakona 'to be hidden', intransitive 
# takona 'hidden' [root, stress on ta] >> takon [stem, stress on kon]'apply action 
# of hiding to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being hidden' or '(is) usually hidden',
# passive past tense = no + takon + ana 'was hidden', passive future tense = ho + 
# takon + ana 'will be hidden'; manatataka 'to get something to unstitch', transitive
# or mitataka 'to be unstitched', intransitive - tataka 'unstiched.STATE [root, stress
# on first ta]' >> tatah [stem, stress on second tah]'apply action of getting unstitched
# to something' + ana '(is) be deliberately torn apart', passive past tense = no + 
# tatah + ana 'was deliberately torn apart', passive future tense = ho + tatah + ana 
# 'will be deliberately torn apart'; manatrabaka 'to pierce through something', 
# transitive or mitrabaka 'to be pierced through', intransitive - trabaka 'pierced 
# through as meat.STATE.[root, stress on tra]' >> trabah [stem, stress on bah]'apply 
# action of piercing through to something' + ana  ='(is) being pierced through' or 
# '(is) usually pierced through', passive past tense = no + trabah + ana 'was pierced
# through', passive future tense = ho + trabah + ana 'will be pierced though'; ... }


# D.10 - Stem with Passive.1 ana: SUBJ.OBJ2-OBLag-OBJ1

# This set of Noun stem predicates describe DELIBERATE kinds ACTIVITY and usually 
# (D.10) take an OBLag (on the stem) introduced by the Passive.2 suffix ana 
# and with a subject DP reflecting a promotion of the type OBJ2 > SUBJ. Note the 
# presence of a Direct Object (= OBJ1).

# Potential AN(A)-prefix, Di-transitive [typically an incorporated indefinite OBJ] 
# possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears within ( ... ) 
# is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the
# same word:

# { mamahana 'to feed someone something', transitive - fahana 'gift of food [root, 
# stress on fa]' >> fahan [stem, stress on han, middle]'apply action of feeding to 
# someone' + ana = '(is) being fed something' or '(is) usually fed things', passive 
# past tense = no + fahan + ana 'was fed something', passive future tense = ho + 
# fahan + ana 'will be fed something'; manoro 'to indicate something to someone', 
# transitive - toro 'indication [root, stress on to]' >> toro [stem, stress on ro, 
# middle] 'apply action of giving some indication to someone' + ana ='(is) being 
# given advice' or '(is) usually given advice', passive past tense = no + toro + 
# ana 'was given advice', passive future tense = ho + toro + ana 'will be given 
# advice'; manolotra 'to offer someone something', transitive - tsolotra 'bribe 
# [root, stress on tso]' >> tsolor [stem, stress on lor, middle]'apply the action 
# of bribing to someone using offering' + ana ='(is) being bribed using an offering' 
# or '(is) usually bribed using offerings', passive past tense = no + tsolor + ana 
# 'was bribed using an offering', passive future tense = ho + tsolor + ana 'will 
# be bribed using offerings'; ... }


# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Di-transitive (as restricted above) or Potential
# I-prefix, Middle [typically taking an incorporated/indefinite OBJ] vs Intransitive
# [no OBJ at all] possible, but only the Stem is relevant. Recall that what appears 
# within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part 
# of one and the same word:

# { manofa 'to rent something [for an amount of money]', transitive or mihofa 
# 'to be rented', middle - hofa 'rent [root, stress on ho])' >> hofa [stem, 
# stress on fa, middle]'apply action of renting for (money) to something' + (a)na =
# '(is) being rented using a certain amount of money' or '(is) usually rented using
# a certain amount of money', passive past tense = no + hofa + (a)na 'was rented 
# using a certain amount of money', passive future tense = ho + hofa + (a)na 'will
#  be rented using a certain amount of money'; 'manakaka 'to put a wedge to something
# using something', transitive or mikaka 'to have a wedge to it', middle - kaka 'wedge
# [root, stress on first ka]' >> kaka [stem, stress on second ka, middle]'apply action
# of wedging to someone/something' + (a)na ='(is) being blocked using something' or 
# '(is) usually blocked using things', passive past tense = no + kaka + (a)na 'was 
# blocked using something', passive future tense = ho + kaka + (a)na 'will be blocked
# using something'; manonitra 'to compensate using something', intransitive or 
# mionitra 'to be compensated', intransitive - onitra' compensation [root, 
# stress on o]'>> oner [stem, stress on ner, middle]'give something in 
# compensation to someone' + ana ='(is) being compensated using a certain
# amount for something' or '(is) usually compensated by an amount for things',
# passive past tense = n(o) + oner + ana 'was compensated using something', 
# passive future tense = h(o) + onera + ana 'will be compensated using 
# something'; mandrakotra 'to cover someone/something [with something]', 
# transitive or mirakotra, middle - rakotra 'cover [root, stress on ra]' 
# >> rakof [stem, stress on kof, middle]'apply action of covering to 
# someone/something using something' + ana = '(is) being covered with 
# something' or '(is) usually covered with things', passive past tense = 
# no + rakof + ana 'was covered with something', passive future tense = 
# ho + rakof + ana 'will be covered with something'; mandravaka 
# 'to adorn using something', transitive  or miravaka 'to be adorned
# with something', middle - ravaka 'ornament [root, stress on ra]' >> 
# ravah [stem, stress on vah, middle]'apply action of adorning with 
# something to something' + ana ='(is) being decorated with something' 
# or '(is) usually decorated with things', passive past tense = no + 
# ravah + ana 'was decorated with something', passive future tense = 
# ho + ravah + ana 'will be decorated with something'; mandroso 
# 'to push something forward', transitive or miroso 'to go forward', 
# intransitive - roso 'putting forward [root, stress on ro]' >> roso 
# [stem, stress on so, middle]'apply action of pushing something 
# forward to someone' + ana ='(is) being presented with something' 
# or '(is) usually presented with things'; mandrotsaka 'to pour 
# something', transitive or mirotsaka 'to get involved, to be poured',
# intransitive - rotsaka 'pouring [root, stress on ro]' >> rotsah 
# [stem, stress on tsah, middle]'apply action of pouring one kind
# of liquid into another' + ana  ='(is) being poured one liquid 
# into another' or '(is) usually poured one liquid into another', 
# passive past tense = no + rotsah + ana 'was poured something 
# into another', passive future tense = ho + rotsah + ana 'will 
# be poured something into another'; manakana 'to obstruct, to 
# block someone/something [using something]', transitive or 
# misakana 'to obstruct someone/something' or 'to be an obstacle', 
# middle - sakana 'barrier [root, stress on sa]' >> sakan [stem, 
# stress on kan, middle]'erect something as a barrier to someone/
# something' + ana  ='(is) being barred using something' or '(is)
# usually barred using things', passive past tense = no + sakan 
# + ana 'was blocked using things', passive future tense = ho + 
# sakan + ana 'will be blocked [using things'; manarona 'to cover 
# something [using things', transitive or misarona 'to have a cover',
# middle - sarona 'lid [root, stress on sa]' >> saron [stem, stress
# on ron, middle]'apply action of putting a lid/cover onto something'
# + ana ='(is) being covered with something' or'(is) usually covered 
# with things', passive past tense = no + saron + ana 'was covered 
# with something', passive future tense = ho + saron + ana 'will be
# covered with something'; manasa 'to wash something', transitive or
# misasa 'to wash (oneself)', intransitive - sasa 'wash [root, stress
# on first sa]' >> sasa [stem, stress on second sa, middle]'apply 
# action of washing to somebody/something using something' + ana =
# '(is) being washed using something' or '(is) usually washed using 
# things (i.e. soap)', passive past tense = no + sasa + (a)na 'was 
# washed with something', passive future tense = ho + sasa + (a)na 
# 'will be washed using something'; manisika 'to inject something', 
# transitive or misisika 'to inject oneself', intransitive - sisika 
# 'cram [root, stress on first si]' >> sisih [stem, stress on second si,
#  middle]'apply action of injecting something into' + ana ='(is) being
# crammed using something' or '(is) usually crammed using something', 
# passive past tense = no + sisih + ana 'was crammed with something', 
# passive future tense = ho + sisih + ana 'will be crammed with 
# something'; manolo 'to replace someone/something', transitive or 
# misolo 'to replace/represent someone' or 'to be replaced', middle 
# - solo 'substitute [root, stress on so]' >> solo [stem, stress on
# lo, middle]'apply action of substituting to someone' + ana = '(is)
# being represented/replaced with something' or '(is) usually 
# represented/replaced with someone/something', passive past tense = 
# no + solo + ana 'was replaced, intransitive' or 'was represented 
# body, transitive', passive future tense = ho + solo + ana 'will 
# be replaced, intransitive' or 'will be represented body, transitive';
# manosoka 'to reinforce something', transitive or misosoka 'to be 
# reinforced', intransitive - sosoka 'reinforcement [root, stress 
# on so]' >> sosoh [stem, stress on soh, middle]'apply action of 
# reinforcing to something' + ana ='(is) being reinforced with 
# something' or '(is) usually reinforced with things', passive 
# past tense = no + sosoh + ana 'was reinforced with something', 
# passive future tense = 'will be reinforced with something';
# manafo 'to put a roof to something', transitive or mitafo 
# 'to have a roof to it', intransitive - tafo 'roof [root]' >> 
# tafo [stem, stress on fo, middle]'apply action of roofing to 
# something' + ana = '(is) being roofed using something' or 
# '(is) usually roofed using things', passive past tense = 
# no + tafo + ana 'was covered with a roof', passive future tense =
# ho + tafoa + ana 'will be covered with a roof'; manambitambi 
# 'to cajole someone [with something]', transitive or mitambitambi 
# 'to be inclined to cajoling', intransitive - tambitambi 'cajoling
# [root, stress on first tam]' >> tambitambaz or tambatambaz [stem,
# stress on second tam, middle]'apply action of cajoling to someone'
# + ana = '(is) being cajoled with the help of something' or (is) 
# usually cajoled with the help of something, passive past tense =
# no + tambatambaz + ana 'was cajoled with something', passive future 
# tense = ho + tambatambaz + ana 'will be cajoled with something'; 
# manampoka 'to mix with something', transitive or mitampoka 'to be 
# a mixture', intransitive - tampoka 'admixture [root, stress on tam]'
# >> tampoh [stem, stress on poh, middle]'apply action of mixing to 
# something' + ana ='(is) being mixed up using something' or '(is) 
# usually mixed up using something', passive past tense = no + tampoh 
# + ana 'was mixed up with the help of something', passive future tense = 
# ho + tampoh + ana 'will be mixed up with the help of something'; 
# manolotra 'to hand someone something', transitive or mitolotra 
# 'to hand oneself in', middle (mitolo-tena) - tolotra 'handing 
# [root, stress on to]' >> tolor [stem, stress on lor, middle]
# 'apply action of handing something to someone' + ana  ='(is) 
# being handed an offering' or '(is) usually handed offerings', 
# passive past tense = no + tolor + ana 'was handed something', 
# passive future tense = ho + tolor + ana 'will be handed something'; 
# manopi 'to give a glance to something', transitive or mitopi 
# 'to be directed at someone', intransitive - topi 'glance of eye 
# [root, stress on to]' >> topaz [stem, stress on paz, middle]
# 'apply action of giving a glance to something' + ana  ='(is) 
# being given a glance' or '(is) usually given a glance', passive 
# past tense = no + topaz + ana 'was given a glance', passive 
# future tense = ho + topaz + ana 'will be given a glance'; 
# 'manatsatoka 'to plant something', transitive or mitsatoka 
# 'to be planted', intransitive - tsatoka 'stabbing [root, 
# stress on tsa]' >> tsatoh [stem, stress on toh, middle] 
# 'apply action of stabbing to someone' + ana ='(is) being stabbed
#  using something, i.e. a knife' or '(is) usually stabbed using 
# things', passive past tense = no + tsatoh + ana 'was stabbed 
# with something', passive future tense = ho + tsatoh + ana 'will 
# be stabbed with something'; manentsina 'to clog up something 
# [using something]', transitive or mitsentsina 'to be clogged up'
# middle - tsentsina 'clogged.up.STATE [root, stress on first tsen]' 
# >> tsentsen [stem, stress on second tsen, middle] 'apply action of 
# clogging.up to one thing with the help of another (solid volume)' 
# + ana  ='(is) being clogged up using something' or '(is) usually 
# clogged up using something', passive past tense = no + tsentsen + 
# ana 'was deliberately clogged up with something', passive future 
# tense = ho + tsentsen + ana 'will be deliberately clogged up with 
# something'; manindri 'to press someone/something [with something else]', 
# transitive or mitsindri 'to be pressed with something', middle - tsindri 
# 'pressure [root, stress on tsin]' tsindri [stem, stress on ndri, middle] 
# 'apply action of pressing down to someone/something using something' + 
# ana ='(is) being pressed down using something' or '(is) usually 
# pressed down using something', passive past tense = no + tsindri
# + ana 'was pressed down using something', passive future tense =
# ho + tsindri + ana 'will be pressed down using something'; 
# manohana 'to support/block someone/something [using something]', 
# transitive or mitohana 'to be stopped/blocked', intransitive - 
# tohana 'prop, support [root, stress on to]' >> tohan [stem, 
# stress on han, middle]'apply action of supporting to someone/
# something [using something else]' + ana ='(is) being given 
# support/blocked [using something]' or '(is) usually given 
# support/blocked [using something]', passive past tense = 
# no + tohan + ana 'was supported/blocked using something',
# passive future tense = ho + tohan + ana 'will be supported/
# blocked using something'; manohoka 'to place one thing right 
# [against another]', transitive or mitohaka 'to be up against', 
# intransitive - tohoka 'barrier [root, stress on to]' >> tohof 
# [stem, middle]'apply the action of providing a barrier to 
# someone/something' + ana ='(is) being blocked using something' 
# or '(is) usually blocked using something', passive past tense = 
# no + tohof + ana 'was blocked using something', passive future 
# tense = ho + tohof + ana 'will be used using something'; ... }


# D.10' - Stem with Passive.1 ana: SUBJ.OBJ2-OBLag
# NOTE: No OBJ.1

# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive (generally) or Potential I-prefix, 
# Intransitive possible, but only the Stem can combine with suffix ana.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign 
# indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the same word.


# Potential AN(A)-prefix possible, but only the Stem is relevant:
# { manatsofa 'to saw off something', transitive or mitsofa 'to be sawn off', 
# intransitive - tsofa 'saw [root, stress on tso]' >> tsif [stem, stress on 
# tsif] 'apply action of sawing to something' + ana = '(is) being sawn off 
# [using something]' or '(is) usually sawn off [using things]', passive 
# past tense = no + tsofa + (a)na 'was sawed off', passive future tense = 
# ho + tsofa + (a)na 'will be sawed off'; ... }


# Potential I-prefixes.

# Potential I-prefix, Transitive possible, but only the Stem combines with suffix 
# ana. Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign 
# indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { mikapoka 'to strike someone/something [with something]', transitive -
# kapoka 'blow [root, stress on ka]' >> kapoh [stem, stress on poh, middle]
# 'apply action of striking to someone/something [using/with something]' + ana =
# '(is) being given a beating [with something]' or '(is) usually given a beating
# [with things]', passive past tense = no + kaph + ana 'was struck [using something]',
# passive future tense = ho + kapoh + ana 'will be struck [using something]'; 
# mikasika 'to touch someone/something', transitive - kasika 'touch [root, stress on ka]'
# >> kasih [stem, stress on sih, middle]'apply action of touching hand to someone/
# something + ana ='(is) being touched [at the hand]' or '(is) usually touched at 
# the hand', passive past tense = no + kasih + ana 'was deliberately touched.hand/
# ill.treated', passive future tense = ho + kasik + ana 'will be deliberately 
# touched.hand/ill.treated'; mitoraka 'to throw something', transitive - toraka 
#'throw [root, stress on to]' >> torah [stem, stress on rah, middle]'apply action
# of throwing something to someone/something' + ana ='(is) being thrown something 
# at' or '(is) usually thrown things at', passive past tense = no + torah + ana 
# 'was thrown something', passive future tense = ho + torah + ana 'will be thrown 
# something'; mizaha 'to search for something', transitive - zaha 'search [root, 
# stress on za]' >> zaha [stem, stress on ha, middle]'apply action of doing search
# for something to somebody or to something' + (a)na ='(is) being applied search 
# to so as to look for something' or '(is) usually applied search to so as to look
# for things', passive past tense = no + zaha + (a)na 'was inspected for something',
# passive future tense = ho + zaha + (a)na 'will be inspected for something'; ... }


# Potential I-prefix, Middle possible, but only the Stem [middle = with an 
# indefinite/incorporated OBJ] combines with suffix ana. Recall that what appears 
# within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is 
# part of one and the same word:

# { mitovona 'to take a prefix', intransitive - tovona 'prefix [root, stress on to]'
# >> tovon [stem, stress on von, middle]'apply action of giving a prefix to something'
# + ana ='(is) being prefixed using something' or '(is) usually prefixed things', 
# passive past tense = no + tovon + ana 'was prefixed using something', passive 
# future tense = ho + tovon + ana 'will be prefixed using something'; mitovana 
# 'to take a suffix', intransitive - tovana 'suffix [root, stress on to]' >> 
# tovan [stem, stress, middle]'apply action of giving a suffix to something' + ana' =
# '(is) being suffixed something' or '(is) usually suffixed things', passive past 
# tense = no + tovan + ana 'was suffixed using something', passive future tense = 
# ho + tovan + ana 'will be suffixed using something'; ... }


# Potential I-prefix, Intransitive [Absolutely no OBJ] possible but only the
# Stem [middle = with an indefinite/incorporated OBJ] combines with suffix ana.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates 
# that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { mitselatra 'to produce lightning flashes', intransitive - tselatra 'lightning 
# flash [root, stress on tse]' >> tselar [stem, stress on lar, middle] 'apply 
# action of lightning flash to something using something' + ana ='(is) being 
# given a lightning flash using something' or '(is) usually given a lightning 
# flash using something', passive past tense = no + tselar + ana 'was given 
# torching using something', passive future tense = ho + tselar + ana 'will be
# given torching using something'; ... }



# D.11 - Stem with Passive.1 ana: SUBJ.OBJ2-OBLag-OBJ1

# This set of Adj stem predicates describe DELIBERATE kinds of ACTIVITY
# and usually (D.11) take an OBLag (on the stem) introduced by the 
# Passive.2 suffix ana and with a subject DP reflecting a promotion of the 
# type OBJ2 > SUBJ. Note the presence of a Direct Object (= OBJ1).

# No apparent prefix at all - Intransitive possible, but only the Stem 
# [middle = with an indefinite/incorporated OBJ] combines with suffix ana.
# Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign 
# indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { safotra 'flooded.[root, stress on sa] >> safor [stem, middle]'apply action
# of flooding (in)to something' + ana ='(is) being flooded with something, i.e. 
# liquid [ saforana rano 'is.being.flooded.with water']' or '(is) usually flooded
# with things', passive past tense = no + safor + ana 'was flooded with something/
# water', passive future tense = ho + safor + ana 'will be flooded with something/
# water'; ... }


# Potential AN(A)-prefix - Transitive possible, but only the Stem [middle = 
# with an indefinite/incorporated OBJ] combines with suffix ana. Recall that what 
# appears within ( ... ) is to be dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme 
# is part of one and the same word:

# { manjenjina 'to overwhelm someone [with something]', transitive - jenjina 
# 'overhwelmed.STATE [root, stress on jen]' >> jenjem [stem, stress on jem, 
# middle]'apply action of bombarding to someone' + ana =(is) bombarding someone
# with something [for instance, jenjemana fako 'is.being.pelted.with garbage]' 
# or '(to) habitually & deliberately bombard someone with things', passive past 
# tense = no + jenjem + ana 'was pelted with something', passive future tense = 
# ho + jenjem + ana 'will be pelted with something'; mandena 'to wet someone/
# something with something', transitive - lena 'wet' [root, stress on le]' >> 
# leman [stem, stress on man, middle]'apply action of making wet using something'
# + ana ='(is) being made wet using something [lemana rano 'is.being. made.wet.
# with water]' or '(is) usually & deliberately made wet using something', passive
# past tense = no + lem + ana 'was deliberately made wet using something', passive
# future tense = ho + leman + ana 'will be deliberately made wet using something'; 
# mamoki 'to feed someone [with something]', transitive - voki'satiated.[root, 
# stress on vo]' >> vokis [stem, stress on kis, middle]'apply action of satiating
# to someone' + ana ='(is) being fed (a lie) [ = vokisana lainga 'being.fed a lie']'
# or'(is) usually fed (lies)', passive past tense = no + vokis + ana 'was fed 
# (for example) lies', passive future tense = ho + vokis + ana 'will be fed 
# (for example) lies; ... }


# Either Potential AN(A)-prefix, Transitive or Potential I-prefix, Intransitive
# possible, but only the Stem [middle = with an indefinite/incorporated OBJ.] 
# combines with suffix ana. Recall that what appears within ( ... ) is to be 
# dropped; the + sign indicates that the morpheme is part of one and the same word:

# { manampi 'to add one thing (onto another)', transitive or miampi 'to have added 
# to it', middle - ampi 'sufficient [root, stress on am ]' >> ampi [stem, stress on 
# mpi, middle]'apply action of adding to something' + ana ='(is) being added to 
# something [ ampiana trotraka 'is.being.added.with fatigue]' or '(is) usually & 
# deliberately added one thing onto another', passive past tense = n(o) + ampi + 
# ana 'was added one thing onto another', passive future tense = h(o) + ampi + ana 
# 'will be added one thing onto another'; manaboboka 'to soak something with another
# thing (water)', transitive or miboboka 'to be soaked up (in something)', 
# intransitive - boboka 'soaked.STATE [root, stress on first bo]' >> boboh 
# [stem, stress on both, middle]'apply action of soaking to something' + ana =
# '(is) being deliberately soaked using something [bobohana rano 'being.soaked.
# with water']' or '(is) usually deliberately soaked using things', passive past 
# tense = no + boboh + ana 'was soaked up with something/water', passive future 
# tense = ho + boboh + ana 'will be soaked up with something/water'; mametaka 
# 'to put something in place', transitive or mipetaka 'to be in place', 
# intransitive petaka 'flat.STATE' [root, stress on pe] >> petah [stem, stress 
# on tah, middle]'apply action of stamping one thing onto another' + ana =
# '(is) being stamped onto one thing using another' or 'is usually & deliberately
# stamped onto one thing using another', passive past tense = no + petah + ana 
# 'was stamped something using another', passive future tense = ho + petah + ana 
# 'will be stamped something using another'; mandraraka 'to pour something onto 
# the ground', transitive or miraraka 'to be in the process of spilling', 
# intransitive - raraka 'spilled.STATE.[root, stress on first ra] >> rarah 
# [stem, stress on second rah, middle]'apply action of pouring one liquid (in)to
# another' + ana ='(is) being poured into one thing using another [= rarahana 
# rano 'is.beingpoured.with water']' or '(is) usually poured into using something
# (liquid)', passive past tense = no + rarah + ana 'was poured using something 
# (liquid)', passive future tense = ho + rarah + ana 'will be poured using 
# something (liquid)'; manampina 'to block something [using something]', 
# transitive or mitampina 'to be clogged up', intransitive - tampina 
# 'clogged-up.STATE.[root, stress on tam]' >> tampin >> tampen [stem, 
# stress on pen, middle]'apply action of clogging up using something 
# (solid volume)' + ana ='(is) being deliberately clogged-up using 
# something (solid volume)''(is) being gagged' [= tampenana vava 
# 'clogged.up mouth]' or '(is) usually gagged using something', 
# passive past tense = no + tampen + ana 'had one's mouth gagged 
# using something', passive future tense = ho + tampen + ana 'will 
# have one's mouth gagged using something'; ... }



# Part 3: SUBJ.OBLinstr or OBLIQUE-Instrument as Subject

# Presumably, unlike a Direct Object (= OBJ.1) and an Indirect Object (=OBJ.2), 
# which are part of the core of a sentence, an Oblique-Instrument is a derived 
# argument of the verb in Malagasy. See 'Simple sentences in Malagasy' available
# under Randriamasimanana 2006b at http://folk.uio.no/janengh/gassisk/. In what 
# follows, it will be seen that as far as Passive.2 is concerned, a passive root 
# typically takes a verbal prefix AN (which apparently encodes lexical aspect) 
# in order to introduce an instrument type of oblique whereas the nature of such 
# a verbal prefix encoding lexical aspect is not so readily predictable where a 
# non-passive root is involved. Thus, in the first section (Section 1) it will 
# be seen that AN-stem is required for certain Noun based stems to encode lexical
# aspect, whereas in the second section (Section 2) it will be shown that I-stem
# is also possible for other Noun based stems. The crucial factor appears to be
# transitivity irrespective of whether the primary verbal prefix is AN or I.


Section 1 - Stems based on passive roots

# D.12 - AN-stem with suffix ana: SUBCAT-SUBJ.OBLinstr-OBJ-OBLag

# This set of complex passive stem predicates based on passive roots & comprising
# verbal prefix AN describe DELIBERATE kinds of ACTIVITY and usually (D.12) take
# an OBLag (on the stem) introduced by the Passive.2 suffix ana and with
# a subject DP encoding an INSTRUMENT. Note the presence of a Direct Object (= OBJ)
# as the relevant verb is transitive. The forms listed immediately below and relevant
# for Passive.2 (OBLinstr > SUBJ) are all derived from passive roots:

# { anefana = based on efa 'done.STATE [root, stress on e]' >> 
# an-efa [stem, stress on fa] + (a)na, literally'(let.something).
# be.used.to.carry.out OBJ [stem]' + suffix.ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to do/carry out something' or '(is) habitually
# & deliberately used to do/carry out something', amantarana = 
# based on fantatra 'known.STATE [root]' >> am-(f)antar [stem]'
# + ana, literally'(let.something).be.used.to.find.out.about OBJ
# [stem]' + suffix.ana ='(is) being deliberately used to find 
# out about something' or '(is) habitually & deliberately used
# to find out about something', amenoana = based on feno2'full.STATE
# [root, stress on fe]' >> am-(f)eno3 [stem, stress on no] + ana, 
# literally '(let.something).be.used.to.fill up OBJ [stem]'+ 
# suffix.ana ='(is) being deliberately used to fill up something'
# or '(is) usually & deliberately used to fill up something', 
# amongorana = based on fongotra 'eradicated.STATE [root]' >> 
# am-(f)ongor [stem] + ana, literally '(let.something).be.used.
# to.eradicate OBJ [stem]' + suffix.ana ='(is) being deliberately
# used to eradicate people/things' or '(is) habitually & deliberately
# used to eradicate people/things', angorobahana = based on gorobaka
# 'pierced through.STATE [root]' >> an-gorobah [stem] + ana, 
# literally '(let.something).be.used.to.pierce.through OBJ'[stem]'
# + suffix.ana ='(is) being deliberately used to pierce through 
# something' or '(is) usually & deliberately used to pierce through
# something', andaniana = based on lani2 'finished.STATE [root, 
# stress on la]' >> an-(l>)dani [stem, stress on ni] + ana, 
# literally '(let.something).be.used.to.finish OBJ [stem]' 
# + suffix.ana ='(is) being deliberately used to finish 
# something' or '(is) usually & deliberately used to finish
# something', andevonana = based on levona2 'dissolved.STATE
# [root] >> an-(l>)devon [stem] + ana, literally '(let.something).
# be.used.to.dissolve OBJ [stem]'+ suffix.ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to dissolve something' or '(is) usually
# & deliberately used to dissolve something', anomezana =
# based on ome 'given.STATE [root]' >> an-omez (stem) + ana,
# literally '(let.something).be.used.to.give OBJ [stem]' 
# + suffix.ana ='(is) being used to give something' or 
# '(is) habitually & deliberately used to give something', 
# amotehana = based on potika2 'smashed.STATE [root]' >> 
# am-(p)oteh [stem] + ana, literally '(let.something).be.
# used.to.smash OBJ [stem]' + suffix.ana ='(is) being used
# to deliberately smash something' or '(is) habitually & 
# deliberately used to smash something', amoretana = based 
# on poritra2 'crushed.STATE [root]' >> am-(p)oret [stem] 
# + ana, literally '(let.something).be.used.to.crush OBJ 
# [stem]' + suffix.ana ='(is) being used to deliberately
# crush something' or '(is) habitually used to deliberately
# crush something', anapahana = based on tapaka 'cut.off.STATE
# [root]' >> an-(t)apah (stem) + ana, literally '(let.something).
# be.used.to.cut.off OBJ [stem]' + suffix.ana  ='(is) being 
# used to cut off something' or '(is) habitually used to cut
# off something', anantanterahana = based on tanteraka 
# 'complete.STATE [root]' >> anan-tanterah [stem] + ana,
# literally '(let.something).be.used.to.complete OBJ [stem]'
#  + suffix.ana ='(is) being used to deliberately carry out
# something' or '(is) habitually & deliberately used to carry
# out something', anantontosana = based on tontosa3 'achieved.STATE
# [root] >> anan-tontosa3--stress on 'sa'-- + ana, literally 
# '(let.something).be.used.to.achieve OBJ [stem]' + suffix.ana =
# '(is) being used to achieve something' or '(is) habitually & 
# deliberately used to achieve something', anatrarana = based 
# on tratra2 'be.caught.STATE [root] >> ana-trar [stem] + ana,
# literally '(let.something).be.used.to.catch OBJ [stem]' + 
# suffix.ana  ='(is) being used to deliberately catch/trap 
# someone/something' or '(is) habitually & deliberately 
# used to catch/trap someone/something', amakiana = based
# on vaki1'broken.STATE [root, stress on va] >> am-(v)aki
# [stem, stress on ki] + ana literally '(let.something).be.
# used.to.breaking OBJ [stem]' + suffix.ana ='(something).
# is.being.used.to.break something' or '(something).is.
# habitually & deliberately.used.to.break something', ... } 



# Section 2 - Stems based on non-passive roots

# Unlike with passive stems above, which automatically take the prefix AN along
# with the suffix AN(A) for Passive.2 (OBLinstr > SUBJ), non-passive stems require
# a lexically determined verbal prefix, which can be AN if the corresponding active
# voice verb requires lexical aspect-marker AN or which can also be I if the 
# corresponding active voice verb requires lexical aspect-marker I, as will be
# illustrated immediately below.

# Subsection 1 - AN-stem

# In the first list provided immediately below, we have forms based on Noun roots
# which require a verbal prefix AN as part of their stem in order to take an Oblique
# argument encoding some INSTRUMENT as their grammatical SUBJECT.

# D.13 - AN-stem with suffix ana: SUBCAT-SUBJ.OBLinstr-OBJ-OBLag

# This set of complex passive stem predicates comprising verbal prefix AN describe
# DELIBERATE kinds of ACTIVITY and usually (D.13) take an OBLag (on the stem)
# introduced by the Passive.2 suffix ana and with a subject DP encoding an INSTRUMENT.
# Note the presence of a Direct Object (OBJ) as the relevant verb is transitive. All
# the 'roots' shown here take m + AN to form the corresponding active voice forms 
# except for cases like angadi 'spade' where apparently haplology has applied:

# { andakana = based on daka 'kick [root, stress on da] >> an-daka '(let.something).be.used.
# to kick OBJ [stem, stress on ka]' + (a)na ='(is) being used to deliberately kick someone/
# something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to kick people/things', andohana = 
# based on loaka'hole [root, stress on loa]' >> an-(l>)doha '(let.something). be.used.to 
# perforate OBJ'[stem, stress on ha] + (a)na ='(is) being used to perforate something' 
# or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to perforate things', angadiana = based on angadi
# 'spade [root, stress on ga]' >> angadi'(let.something).be.used.to dig OBJ [stem, stress 
# on di]' + ana ='(is) being used to dig something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually 
# used to dig things', anavahana = based on avaka 'separation [root, stress on a]' >> 
# an-avah '(let.something).be.used.to separate OBJ [stem, stress on vah]' + ana ='(is)
# being used to discard someone or something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used 
# to discard people or things', anavotana = based on avotra'redemption [root, stress on a]'
# >> an-avot'(let.something).be.used.to redeem OBJ [stem, stress on vot]' + ana ='(is) 
# deliberately being used to redeem someone' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to
# redeem people', andobohana = based on doboka 'loud noise [root, stress on do]' >>
# an-doboh'(let.something).be.used to give OBJ a loud thump [stem, stress on boh]' 
# + ana ='(is) deliberately being used to give someone a loud thump' or '(is) deliberately
# & habitually used to give people loud thumps', andokafana = based on doka 'praise 
# [root, stress on do]' >> an-dokaf '(let.something).be.used to praise OBJ [stem, 
# stress on kaf]' + ana = '(is) deliberately being used to praise someone' or '(is)
# deliberately & habitually used to praise people', andoroana = based on doro 'action
# of burning [root, stress on do]' >>  an doro'(let.something).be.used to burn OBJ 
# [stem, stress on ro]'+ ana ='(is) deliberately being used to burn someone/something'
# or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to burn people/things', anevohana = based 
# on evoka 'inhalation, steam bath [root, stress on e] >> an-evoh '(let.something).
# be.used.to steam bath OBJ [stem, stress on voh]' + ana ='(is) being used to steam
# bath something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to steam bath things', 
# amafana = based on fafa 'sweep [root, stress on first syllable]' >> am-(f)afa 
# '(let.something).be.used to sweep OBJ [stem, stress on second fa]' + (a)na = 
# '(is) deliberately being used to sweep something' or '(is) deliberately and
#  habitually used to sweep things', amandrihana = based on fandrika 'trap, reservation
# [root, stress on fan]' >> am-(f)andrih '(let.something).be.used.to trap/reserve OBJ
# [stem, stress on ndrih]' + ana  ='(is) being deliberately used to trap someone or 
# to subscribe to something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to trap people 
# or to subscribe to things', amantsihana = based on fantsika 'nail [root, stress on
# fan]' >> am-(f)antsih '(let.something).be.used.to nail OBJ [stem, stress on ntsih]'
# + ana  ='(is) being deliberately used to nail something' or '(is) deliberately and
# habitually used to nail things', amaranana = based on farany 'end, conclusion 
# [root, stress on fa]' >> am-(f)aran '(let.something).be.used.to conclude OBJ 
# [stem, stress on ran]' + ana = '(is) being deliberately used to conclude something' 
# or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to conclude things', amaritana = based on 
# faritra 'limit [root, stress on fa]' >> am-(f)arit '(let.something).be.used.to 
# limit OBJ [stem, stress on rit]' + ana ='(is) being deliberately used to delimit
# something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to delimit things', amerana = 
# based on fetra 'limitation, restriction [root, stress on fe]' >> am-(f)er 
# '(let.something).be.used.to restrict OBJ [stem, stress on mer]' + ana =
# '(is) being deliberately used to delimit/restrict things' or '(is) deliberately
# & habitually used to delimit/restrict things', amitahana = based on fitaka 'deceit
# [root, stress on fi]' >> am-(f)itah '(let.something).be.used.to deceive OBJ 
# [stem, stress on tah]' + ana = '(is) being deliberately used to deceive someone'
# or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to deceive people', anafarana = based 
# on hafatra 'message [root, stress on ha]' >> an-(h)afar '(let.something).be.
# used.to remind someone of OBJ [stem, stress on far]' + ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to remind someone of something' or '(is) deliberately &
#  habitually used to remind people of things', anahazana = based on hahi 
# 'drying in the sun [root, stress on ha]' >> an-(h)ahaz '(let.something).be.
# used.to dry OBJ in the sun [stem, stress on haz]' + ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to dry something in the sun' or '(is) deliberately & 
# habitually used to dry things in the sun', anetezana = based on hety 
# 'scissors [root, stress on he]' >> an-(h)etez '(let.something).be.used.
# to give OBJ a haircut'[stem, stress on tez] + ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to give someone a haircut' or '(is) deliberately 
# & habitually used to give people haircuts', anidiana = based on hidi
# 'lock [root, stress on hi]' >>  an-(h)idi '(let.something).be.used.to
# lock OBJ [stem, stress on di]' + ana  ='(is) being deliberately used
# to lock something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to lock things',
# anitsahana = based on hitsaka 'footprint [root, stress on hi]' >> 
# an-(h)itsah '(let.something).be.used.to footprint OBJ [stem, stress
# on tsah]' + ana = '(is) being deliberately used to trample someone/
# something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to trample people/
# things', andafihana = based on lafika 'bedding [root, stress on la]' >>
# an-(l>)dafih '(let.something).be.used.to provide bedding to OBJ [stem, 
# stress on fih]' + ana = '(is) being deliberately used to provide some 
# bedding to be put under someone/it' or '(is) deliberately & habitually
# used to provide OBJ with beddings put under them', andavahana = based
# on lavaka 'hole --potentially big--[root, stress on la]' >> an-(l>)davah
# '(let.something).be.used.to perforate OBJ [stem, stress on vah]' + ana =
# '(is) being deliberately used to perforate something' or '(is) deliberately
# & habitually used to perforate things', andohana = based on loaka 'hole 
# [root, stress on loa]' >> an-(l>)oha '(let.something).be.used.to perforate
# OBJ [stem, stress on ha]' + (a)na ='(is) being deliberately used to 
# perforate something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually used to perforate
# things', andokoana = based on loko 'paint [root, stress on lo]' >> 
# an-(l>)doko '(let.something).be.used.to paint OBJ [stem, stress on ko]'
# + ana  = '(is) being deliberately used to paint something' or '(is)
# deliberately & habitually used to paint things', anorenana = based on
# orina 'foundation [root, stress on o]' >> an-oren '(let.something).be.
# used.to found  OBJ [stem, stress on ren]' + ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to found something' or '(is) deliberately & 
# habitually used to found things', anapihana = based on pika 
# 'click of knife [root, stress on pi]' >> ana-pih '(let.something).
# be.used.to  click OBJ [stem, stress on pih]' + ana ='(is) being
# deliberately used to click/shut down something' or '(is) deliberately
# & habitually used to shut down things', andrafetana = based on 
# rafitra 'construction, shape [root, stress on ra]' >> an-d-rafet
# '(let.something).be.used.to give.shape.to OBJ [stem, stress on fet]'
# + ana = '(is) being deliberately used to shape something' or 
# '(is) deliberately & habitually used to shape things', andrahonana =
# based on rahona 'cloud [root, stress on ra]' >> an-d-rahon 
# '(let.something).be.used.to attract.storm.to OBJ [stem, stress on hon]'
# + ana  = '(is) being deliberately used to threaten someone' or
# '(is) deliberately & habitually used to threaten people',  
# andranitana = based on ranitra 'sharpness [root, stress on ra]' >>
# an-d-ranit '(let.something).be.used.to sharpen OBJ [stem, stem on nit]'
# + ana  = '(is) being deliberately used to sharpen something' or 
# '(is) deliberately & habitually used to sharpen things', andrarana =
# based on rara 'prohibition [root, stress on first ra]  >> an-d-rara
# '(let.something).be.used.to prohibit OBJ [stem, stress on last ra]'
# + (a)na  = '(is) deliberately utilised so as to prohibit something', 
# andravana = based on rava 'destruction [root, stress on ra]' >> an-d-rava
# '(let.something).be.used.to destroy OBJ [stem, stress on va]' + (a)na =
# '(is) being deliberately used to destroy something' or '(is) deliberately
# & habitually used to destroy things', anasilahana = based on silaka 
# 'splinter [root, stress on si]' >> ana-silah + '(let.something).be.used.
# to splinter OBJ [stem, stress on lah]' + ana ='(is) being deliberately 
# used to splinter something off' or (is) deliberately & habitually used 
# to splinter things off', anoloana = based on solo 'substitute [root, 
# stress on so]' >> an-(s)olo '(let.something).be.used.to provide.a.
# substitute.to OBJ [stem, stress on lo]' + ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to replace someone or something' or '(is) 
# deliberately & habitually used to replace people or things',
# anombinana = based on sombina 'fragment [root, stress on som]' >>
# an-(s)ombin '(let.something).be.used.to  take.a.fragment.off OBJ
# [stem, stress on bin]'  + ana = '(is) being deliberately used to 
# take a bite out of something' or '(is) deliberately & habitually
# used to take bites out of things', anoratana = based on soratra 
# 'letter [root, stress on so]' >> an-(s)orat '(let.something).be.
# used.to write OBJ [stem, stress on rat]' + ana ='(is) being 
# deliberately used to write something' or '(is) deliberately & 
# habitually used to write things', anafihana = based on tafika 
# 'army [root, stress on ta]' >> an-(t)afih '(let.something).be.
# used.to besiege OBJ [stem, stress on fih]' + ana ='(is) being
# deliberately used to besiege someone or something' or '(is) 
# deliberately & habitually used to besiege people or things', 
# anoritana = based on soritra 'mark [root, stress on so]' >>
# sorit  'apply action of providing a mark to something 
# [stem, stress on rit]' + ana  = '(is) being deliberately 
# underlined' or '(is) deliberately & usually underlined', 
# amaliana = based on vali 'answer' [root, stress on va] >>
# am-(v)ali '(let.something).be.used.to answer OBJ [stem,
# stress on li]' + ana  = '(is) being deliberately used 
# to answer someone/something' or '(is) deliberately and
# habitually used to answer people/things', amangiana = 
# based on vangi 'visit [root, stress on va]' >> am-(v)angi
# '(let.something).be.used.to visit OBJ [stem, stress on ngi]'
# + ana = '(is) being deliberately used to visit someone/something'
# or "(is) deliberately & habitually used to visit people/things',  ... } 


# Subsection 2 - I-stem

# In the second list provided immediately below, we have forms 
# based on Noun roots which require a verbal prefix I as part of 
# their stem in order to take an Oblique argument encoding some 
# INSTRUMENT as their grammatical SUBJECT.

# D.14 - I-stem with suffix ana: SUBCAT-SUBJ.OBLinstr-OBJ-OBLag

# This set of complex passive stem predicates comprising verbal 
# prefix I describe DELIBERATE kinds of ACTIVITY and usually (D.14)
# take an OBLag (on the stem) introduced by the Passive.2 
# suffix ana and with a subject DP encoding an INSTRUMENT. Note 
# the presence of a Direct Object (OBJ) as the relevant verb is
# transitive. All the stems shown here require the prefix I as
# part of their stem since the corresponding active voice form
# of the verb has the same lexically encoded aspect-marker:

# { iarovana = based on m-i-aro '(to) protect, transitive 
# [ root = aro 'protection']' >> iarov '(let.something).be.
# used.to protect OBJ [stem]' + ana  = '(is) being used to 
# protect someone or something' or '(is) habitually used to
#  protect people or things', iavana = based on m-i-ava 
#'(to) weed, transitive [ root = ava 'weeding']' >> iava
# '(let.something).be.used.to weed OBJ [stem]'+ (a)na  = 
# '(is) being used to weed something' or '(is) habitually 
# used to weed things', ihainoana = based on mihaino m-i-haino
# 'to listen to, transitive [ root = haino 'be.heard']' >> 
# ihaino '(let.something).be.used.to listen.to OBJ [stem] + ana =
# '(is) being used to listen to something' or '(is) habitually 
# used to listen to things', igohana = based on m-i-goka 
# '(to) eagerly suck liquid, transitive [ root = goka 'sucking']'
# >> igoh '(let.something).be.used.to suck something [stem]'
# + ana  = '(is) being used to suck in something' or '(is)
# habitually used to suck in things', ikarohana = based on 
# m-i-karoka '(to) seek, transitive [ root = karoka 'search']'
# >> ikaroh '(let.something).be.used.to search OBJ [stem]' 
# + ana  = '(is) being used to search.for someone or something'
# or '(is) habitually used to search for people or things', 
# ikepohana = based on m-i-kepoka '(to) crunch something with
# a sound, transitive [ root = kepoka 'crunching sound']' >> 
# ikepoh '(let.something).be.used.to crunch OBJ [stem]' 
# + ana = '(is) being used to resoundingly crunch something'
# or '(is) habitually used to resoundingly crunch things', 
# ikikisana = based on m-i-kiki '(to) scrape, transitive 
# [ root = 'scraping']' >> ikikis '(let.something).be.used.
# to scrape OBJ [stem]' + ana  = '(is) being used to scrape
# something' or '(is) habitually used to scrape things', 
# isavana = based on m-i-sava '(to) search, inspect, transitive
# [ root = sava 'inspection']' >> isava  '(let.something).be.
# used.to search, inspect OBJ [stem]' + (a)na  = '(is) being
# used to search someone or something' or '(is) habitually 
# used to search people or things', isorohana = based on m-i-soroka
# '(to) weed out or (to) prevent, transitive [ root = weeding']' 
# >> isoroh '(let.something).be.used.to weed out, to.prevent OBJ 
# [stem]' + ana = '(is) being used to weed out or prevent something'
# or '(is) habitually used to weed out or prevent things', 
# itanehana = based on m-i-tanika '(to) boil, transitive 
# [ root = tanika 'boiling']' >> itaneh  '(let.something).be.
# used.to boil OBJ [stem]'  + ana = '(is) being used to boil 
# something' or '(is) habitually used to boil things', 
# itantanana = based on m-i-tantana '(to) hand-hold or lead, 
# transitive [ root = tantana = 'leading']' >> itantan 
# '(let.something).be.used.to lead OBJ [stem]' + ana =
# '(is) being used to lead someone or something' or 
# '(is) habitually used to lead people or things', 
# itarihana = based on m-i-tarika '(to) pull, lead, 
# transitive [ root = tarika 'lead']' >> itarih  
# '(let.something).be.used.to lead OBJ [stem]' + ana  =
# '(is) being used to lead/pull someone or something' or
# '(is) habitually used to lead/pull people or things', 
# itetehana = based on m-i-tetika '(to) incise, (to) cut up,
# transitive [ root = tetika 'portion']' >> iteteh 
# '(let.something).be.used.to cut up OBJ (stem)' + ana  =
# '(is) being used to cut up something' or '(is) 
# habitually & deliberately used to cut things up', ... }




# Part 4 : Distribution of Root (with clitic.na and OBLgen) & 
# Stem (with suffix.ina/ana and OBLag)

# At this stage, the distribution of Roots as opposed to that of Stems will 
# be explored & illustrated. Section 1 will deal with Passive Roots, whereas 
# Section 2 will consider Non-Passive Roots and Section 3 will address the 
# issue of Default prefix AHA.

# Section 1: Passive Roots [ UNMARKED structures, i.e. verbal prefix not obligatory ]

# In this first section, the following correlations with Passive Roots will be noted:
# Correlation 1 = Root + clitic.na;
# Correlation 2 = Modal HO 'may' + Root;
# Correlation 3 = Stem + suffix.ina;
# Correlation 4 = Stem + suffix.ana;
# Correlation 5 = Modal METY 'may' + Stem.


# Case A: 	heno + n(a)       vs heno + ina
#		Root + clitic.na  vs Stem + suffix.ina

# 1/ Root.heno [stress on 'he'] 'is.heard' (unwittingly) + clitic.na.
# Here we have cases of GEN or clitic.na attached to a Root.

  Henona mpianatra maro ilay resaka.
# Heno      + n(a)      mpianatra  maro    ilay resaka.
# Root.heno + clitic.na student(s) several the  conversation 
# 'The (previous mention) conversation is (unwittingly) overheard by several students.'

  Henon'i Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Heno      + n(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Root.heno + clitic.na D.sg Jeanne the  conversation 
# 'The (previous mention) conversation is (unwittingly) overheard by Jeanne.'
# Note: Stress on 'he' on the passive Root heno 'is.heard.STATE'


# Modal HO 'may' may accompany a Root:

  Ho henona mpianatra maro ilay resaka.
# Ho    heno      + n(a)      mpianatra  maro    ilay resaka.
# Modal Root.heno + clitic.na student(s) several the  conversation 
# 'The (previous mention) conversation may be (unwittingly) overheard by several students.'

  Ho henon'i Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Ho    heno + n(a)  i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Modal overheard.by D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# 'The (previous mention) conversation may (unwittingly) be overheard by Jeanne.'


# 2/ Stem.heno [stress on 'no']'(let.someone/something).be.listened.to' (deliberately)
# + Passive.1suffix.ina ='is.being.listened.to'. Here we have cases of OBLag or 
# suffix.ina attached to a Stem.

  Henoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# The (previous mention) conversation is (deliberately) being listened to by Jeanne.'
# Note: Stem.heno derived from passive imperative henoy 'let.someone/something.be.
# listened.to', stress on 'no.'


# Modal METY 'may' is incompatible with Passive Present tense on Stem:
# Ungrammatical
  Mety henoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka.  (0! 0 0 0)
# Mety  heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Modal stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# The (previous mention) conversation may be & is (deliberately) being listened to by Jeanne.'


# Passive.1 Past Tense on a Stem:

  Nohenoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka.
# No       + heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Pas.past + stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# The (previous mention) conversation was (deliberately) listened to by Jeanne.'
# Note: Stress on second 'no', i.e. of the Stem.


# Passive.1 Future Tense on a Stem:

  Hohenoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Ho       + heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Pas.past + stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# The (previous mention) conversation will be (deliberately) listened to by Jeanne.'
# Note: Stress on second 'no', i.e. of the Stem.


# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO 'may' may accompany Passive.1 Past Tense on a Stem:

  Mety nohenoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Mety  no       + heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Modal Pas.past + stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# The (previous mention) conversation may have been (deliberately) listened to by Jeanne.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho nohenoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho    no       + heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Modal Pas.past + stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
#'The (previous mention) conversation may have been (deliberately) listened to by Jeanne.'


# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO 'may' may accompany Passive.1 Future Tense on a Stem:

  Mety hohenoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Mety  ho       + heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Modal Pas.fut + stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# The (previous mention) conversation may be (deliberately) listened to by Jeanne.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho hohenoin'i Jeanne ilay resaka. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho  ho        + heno      + in(a)      i    Jeanne ilay resaka.
# Modal Pas.fut + stem.heno + suffix.ina D.sg Jeanne the  conversation
# 'The (previous mention) conversation may be (deliberately) listened to by Jeanne.'


# Case B : 	taza<na> + n(a)   vs tazan + ina
#		Root + clitic.na  vs Stem + suffix.ina

# 1/ Root.taza<na> [stress on 'ta'] 'is.seen.from.afar' (perception) + clitic.na
# Here we have cases of GEN or clitic.na attached to a Root.

  Tazan'i Paoly i Jeanne.
# Taza<na> + n(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# Seen     + by   D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne is seen (unwittingly/perception) by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'ta' on the Root.

# Modal HO may appear on a Root:

  Ho tazan'i Paoly i Jeanne.
# Modal taza<na> + n(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# may   be.seen  + by   D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne may be seen (unwittingly/perception) by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'ta' on the Root.


# 2/ Stem.tazan [stress on 'zan'] '(let.someone/something).be.watched.from.afar'
# + Passive.1suffix.ina ='is.being.watched.from.afar'. Here we have cases of OBLag
# or suffix.ina attached to a Stem.

  Tazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne.
# Tazan         + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# being.watched + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne is being (deliberately) watched by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'zan' of the Stem.

# Modal METY 'may' is incompatible with Passive Present tense on Stem:

# Ungrammatical
  Mety tazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne. (0! 0 0 0)
# Mety tazan         + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# Modal being.watched + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne may be & is being (deliberately) watched by Paul.'


# Passive Past tense on a Stem:

  Notazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne.
# Pas.past tazan + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# was.watched    + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne was (deliberately) watched by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'zan' of the Stem.

# Passive Future tense on a Stem:

  Hotazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne.
# Pas.fut tazan   + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# will.be.watched + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne will be (deliberately) watched by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'zan' of the Stem.


# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO 'may' accompany Passive.1 Past Tense on a Stem:

  Mety notazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne.
# Mety pas.past tazan + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# Modal was.watched   + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne may have been (deliberately) watched by Paul.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho notazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho pas.past tazan + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# Modal was.watched + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne may have been (deliberately) watched by Paul.'

# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO 'may' accompany Passive.1 Future Tense on a Stem:

  Mety hotazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne.
# Mety  pas.fut tazan   + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# Modal will.be.watched + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne may be (deliberately) watched by Paul.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho hotazanin'i Paoly i Jeanne. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho    pas.fut tazan   + in(a) i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
# Modal will.be.watched + by    D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
# 'Jeanne may be (deliberately) watched by Paul.'



# Case C : 	simba + n(a)      vs simba + an(a)
#		Root + clitic.na  vs Stem + suffix.ana

# 1/ Root.simba [stress on 'sim'] 'is.damaged.STATE' + clitic.na
# Here we have cases of OBLgen or clitic.na attached to a Root.
# Note that there is a difference between OBLgen, which is optional and
# GEN, which is generally obligatory.

   Simban'i Paoly ilay kilalao.
#  Simba + n(a) i Paoly   ilay kilalao.
#  damaged.by   D.sg Paul the  toy
# 'The (previous mention) toy was unwittingly damaged by Paul.
# Note: Stress on 'sim' of the Root.

# Modal HO may appear on a Root:

  Ho    simba + n(a) i Paoly   ilay kilalao.
# Modal damaged.by   D.sg Paul the  toy
# 'The (previous mention) toy is likely to be unwittingly damaged by Paul.
# Note: Stress on 'sim' of the Root.


# 2/ Stem.simba [stress on 'mba'] '(let.something).be.destroyed' + Passive.
# 1suffix.ana ='is.being.destroyed'. Here we have cases of OBLag or 
# suffix.ana attached to a Stem.

  Simban'i Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Simba + (a)n(a) i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# damaged.by      D.sg Paul  the  toy
# 'The (previous mention) toy is being deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'mba' of the Stem.

# Modal METY 'may' is incompatible with Passive Present tense on a Stem:

# Ungrammatical
  Mety simban'i Paoly ilay kilalao.(0! 0 0 0)
# Mety simba  + (a)n(a)      i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Modal Stem.simba-suff.ana  D.sg Paul  the  toy
#'The (previous mention) toy may be & is being deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'mba' of the Stem.


# Passive Past tense on a Stem:

  Nosimban'i Paoly ilay kilalao.
# No     + simba + (a)n(a) i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# pas.past damaged.by      D.sg Paul  the  toy
# 'The (previous mention) toy was deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'mba' of the Stem.

# Passive Future tense on a Stem:

  Hosimban'i Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Ho     + simba + (a)n(a) i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# pas.fut  damaged.by      D.sg Paul  the  toy
# 'The (previous mention) toy will be deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'
# Note: Stress on 'mba' of the Stem.


# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO may appear on Passive Past tense on a Stem:

  Mety nosimban'i Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Mety  no     + simba + (a)n(a) i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Modal pas.past damaged.by      D.sg Paul  the  toy
# 'The (previous mention) toy may have been deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho nosimban'i Paoly ilay kilalao. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho    no     + simba + (a)n(a) i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Modal pas.past damaged.by      D.sg Paul  the  toy
#'The (previous mention) toy may have been deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'


# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO may appear on Passive future tense on a Stem:

  Mety hosimban'i Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Mety  ho     + simba + (a)n(a) i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Modal pas.fut  damaged.by      D.sg Paul  the  toy
# 'The (previous mention) toy may be deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho hosimban'i Paoly ilay kilalao. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho    ho     + simba + (a)n(a) i    Paoly ilay kilalao.
# Modal pas.fut  damaged.by      D.sg Paul  the  toy
#'The (previous mention) toy may be deliberately damaged/destroyed by Paul.'



# Case D : 	tondra<ka> + n(a) vs tondrah + an(a)
#		Root + clitic.na  vs Stem + suffix.ana

# 1/ Root.tondra<ka> [stress on 'ton'] 'is.overflowing.(with.water).STATE' + clitic.na
# Here we have cases of OBLgen or clitic.na attached to a Root.

  Tondraky ny rano ny tanana.
# Tondra<ka> + clitic.na>> ky ny  rano  ny  tanana.
# overflowing  by             the water the village
# 'The village is overflowing with/drowned by the water.'
# Note: Stress on 'ton' of the Root.

# Modal HO on a Root:

  Ho tondraky ny rano ny tanana.
# Ho  tondra<ka> + clitic.na>> ky ny  rano  ny  tanana.
# May overflowing  by             the water the village
# 'The village may/is likely to be/get overflowing with/drowned by the water.'
# Note: Stress on 'ton' of the Root.


# 2/ Stem.tondrah [stress on 'dra'] '(let.someone/something).be.watered' (deliberately) 
# + Passive.1suffix.ana = 'is.being.deliberately.watered'.
# Here we have cases of OBLag or suffix.ana attached to a Stem.

  Tondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo.
# Tondrah  + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# be.watered by    D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
# 'The flowers are being (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# Either 'Jeanne is watering the flowers' or 'Jeanne usually waters the flowers.'

# Modal METY 'may' is incompatible with Passive Present tense on a Stem:

# Ungrammatical
  Mety tondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo.(0! 0 0 0)
# Mety  tondrah   + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# Modal be.watered by     D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
#'The flowers may be & are being (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# Either 'Jeanne may be & is watering the flowers' or 'Jeanne may & usually waters the flowers.'


# Passive Past tense on a Stem:

  Notondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo.
# No       + tondrah   + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# pas.past + be.watered  by    D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
# 'The flowers were (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# 'Jeanne watered the flowers.'

# Passive Future tense on a Stem:

  Hotondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo.
# Ho      + tondrah   + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# pas.fut + be.watered  by    D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
# 'The flowers will be (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# 'Jeanne will water the flowers.'


# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO may accompany Passive Past tense on a Stem:

  Mety notondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo.
# Mety  no       + tondrah   + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# Modal pas.past + be.watered  by    D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
# 'The flowers may have been (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# 'Jeanne may have watered the flowers.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho notondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho    no       + tondrah   + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# Modal pas.past + be.watered  by    D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
# 'The flowers may have been (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# 'Jeanne may have watered the flowers.'


# Modal METY but NOT Modal HO may accompany Passive Future tense on a Stem:

  Mety hotondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo.
# Mety  ho      + tondrah   + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# Modal pas.fut + be.watered  by    D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
# 'The flowers may be (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# 'Jeanne may water the flowers.'

# Ungrammatical
  Ho hotondrahan'i Jeanne rano ny voninkazo. (0! 0 0 0)
# Ho    ho      + tondrah   + an(a) i    Jeanne rano  ny  voninkazo.
# Modal pas.fut + be.watered  by    D.sg Jeanne water the flowers
# 'The flowers may be (deliberately) overflowing with water by Jeanne' =
# 'Jeanne may water the flowers.'



# Section 2: Non-Passive Roots [ UNMARKED structures, i.e. verbal prefix not obligatory ]

# In this section devoted to Non-Passive Roots, the distribution of Roots as opposed to 
# that of Stems will be illustrated. In particular, the following correlations with 
# Non-Passive Roots will be noted:
# Correlation 1 = *Non-Passive Root + clitic.na;
# Correlation 2 = *Modal HO 'may' + Non-Passive Root;
# Correlation 3 = Stem + suffix.ina (for OBJ.1 > SUBJ);
# Correlation 4 = Stem + suffix.ana (for OBJ.2 > SUBJ);
# Correlation 5 = Modal METY 'may' + Stem.


# Case E: 	*Non-Passive Root + clitic.na vs Non-Passive stem + suffix.ina

# As a rule, a Non-Passive Root (as opposed to a Stem) can accommodate clitic.na
# but NEVER Passive.1 suffix.ina (OBJ.1 > SUBJ) nor Passive.1 suffix.ana (OBJ.2 > SUBJ); 
# on the other hand, a Non-Passive Stem will accommodate Passive.1 suffix.ina or 
# Passive.1 suffix.ana, but NEVER clitic.na.

# We will concentrate on Nouns for which the following holds true:
# Correlation Root + Clitic.na, BUT *Root + Passive.1 suffix.ina
# OR *Root + Passive.1 suffix.ana;
# Correlation Stem + suffix.ina & Correlation Stem + suffix.ana, 
# BUT *Stem + Clitic.na.


# faty 'corpse' fati + na = fatin'i Paoly
# Root = fati 'corpse'; Stem = fates in Default.pref.aha + fates

# Noun Root 'fati' can accommodate clitic na:

  ny fatin'i Paoly 			
# ny  fati-      n(a)          i    Paoly [ Root, stress on 'fa']
# the root.fati-clitic.na'of'  D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's corpse'

# But Noun Root 'fati' canNOT combine with Passive.1 suffix ina:

# Ungrammatical
  ny fatin'i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)			
# ny  fati-      (i)n(a)     i    Paoly [ Stem, stress on 'ti']
# the root.fati-passive.ina  D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's corpse'



# Root = hidi Noun '(a)lock'; Stem = hidi Verb Stem'(let.something).be.locked.up'

# Noun Root hidi '(a) lock' can accommodate clitic na 'of':

  Ny hidina trano			
# Ny  hidi + na             trano [ Root, stress on hi]
# the lock   clitic.na 'of' house
# 'a house lock'


# Noun Root hidi '(a) lock' canNOT accommodate Passive.1 suffix ina:

# Ungrammatical
  Ny hidina trano (0! 0 0 0)		
# Ny  hidi + (i)na    trano [ Root, stress on di]
# the lock   pass.ina house
#'a house lock'



# Root = hafatra 'message'; Stem = hafar '(let.someone).be.reminded.of.(something)'

# Noun Stem 'hafar''(let.someone).be.reminded.of.(something)' can accommodate Passive.1 suffix ana

  ny hafaran'i Paoly 			
# ny  hafar-     + an(a)        i    Paoly
# the Stem.hafar-  passive.ana  D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's message, i.e. literally what is being reminded by Paul''


# But Noun Root 'hafatra''messager' canNOT combine with Passive.1 suffix ana:

# Ungrammatical
  ny hafatran'i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)		
# ny  hafatra-     + an(a)       i    Paoly
# the root.hafatra-  passive.ana D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's message'


# as contrasted with the following

# Noun Stem 'fates' can accommodate Passive.2 suffix ana provided Default prefix AHA licenses it:

  ny fahafatesan' i Paoly
# ny  f         + aha             + fates + an(a)      i    Paoly
# the nominalizer Default.prf.AHA + stem  + suffix.ana D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's death --as an event'
# NOTE: Use of Default AHA prefix & non-correlation with DELIBERATE ACTIVITY of Stem


# Noun Stem 'fates' canNOT accommodate Passive.2 suffix ana if Default prefix AHA is left out:

# Ungrammatical
  ny fatesan' i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  f           + fates + an(a)      i    Paoly
# the nominalizer + stem  + suffix.ana D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's death'


# Noun Root 'fati' canNOT accommodate Passive.2 suffix ana even if Default prefix AHA is present:

# Ungrammatical
  ny fahafatian'i Paoly  (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  f            + aha             + fati      + an(a)       i    Paoly
# the nominalizer    Default.prf.AHA  -root.fati-  passive.ana D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's death --as an event'


# Noun Root 'fati' canNOT accommodate Passive.2 suffix ana especially if Default prefix AHA is absent:

# Ungrammatical
  ny fatian'i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  f            +   fati      + an(a)       i    Paoly
# the nominalizer      root.fati-  passive.ana D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's death --as an event'



# heti 'scissors' heti + na = hetin'i Paoly

# Root = heti 'scissors'; Stem = hetez '(let someone).be.given.a.haircut'

  ny hetin'i Paoly
# ny  heti-         n(a)       i    Paoly
# the root.scissors-clitic.na  D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's scissors'

  ny fihetin'i Paoly
# ny  f-              i-    heti-     n(a)      i    Paoly
# the HABITUAL.aspect-prf.i-Root.heti-clitic.na D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's habitual manner of having his hair cut'
# NOTE: Presence of verbal prefix I and non-STATIVE interpretation of Root


# Ungrammatical
  ny fihetezn'i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  f-              i-    hetez-     n(a)      i    Paoly
# the HABITUAL.aspect-prf.i-Stem.hetez-clitic.na D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's habitual manner of having his hair cut'

# Ungrammatical
  ny fihetez'i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  f-              i-    hetez-     (na)      i    Paoly
# the HABITUAL.aspect-prf.i-Stem.hetez-clitic.na D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's habitual manner of having his hair cut'

# Ungrammatical
  ny fiheten'i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  f-              i-    hete(z)-     n(a)      i    Paoly
# the HABITUAL.aspect-prf.i-Stem.hete(z)-clitic.na D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's habitual manner of having his hair cut'


# as contrasted with the following

  ny trano fihetezan' i Paoly
# ny  trano f-              i-    hetez-     an(a)      i    Paoly
# the house HABITUAL.aspect-prf.i-Stem.hetez-suffix.ana D.sg Paul
# 'the house where habitually Paul gets his haircuts'

# Ungrammatical
  ny trano fihetian' i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  trano f-              i-    heti-     an(a)      i    Paoly
# the house HABITUAL.aspect-prf.i-Root.heti-suffix.ana D.sg Paul
# 'the house where habitually Paul gets his haircuts'

# Ungrammatical
  ny trano fihetezn' i Paoly (0! 0 0 0)
# ny  trano f-              i-    hetez-     n(a)      i    Paoly
# the house HABITUAL.aspect-prf.i-Stem.hetez-clitic.na D.sg Paul
# 'the house where habitually Paul gets his haircuts'


  ny fanetezan'i Jaona an' i Paoly
# ny  f-              an-    (h)etez-an(a)         i    Jaona an' i    Paoly
# the HABITUAL.aspect-prf.an-Stem.hetez-suffix.ana D.sg John  acc D.sg Paul
# 'the habitual manner with which John cuts Paul's hair'




# Section 3 : MARKED structures [ i.e. verbal prefix obligatory] & DEFAULT AHA

# This section explores the domain of DEFAULT AHA, which shows up in derived nominals
# and sets it apart from ABILITATIVE  prefix AHA.

# (a) Passive Roots & Derived Nominals (possible only with Stems)

# ABILITATIVE  prefix AHA

# (i) Case of Passive Roots vs Non-Passive Roots

# With a Passive Root, it is possible to have a Bare Root with the agent 
# introduced by clitic na ; alternatively it is also possible with Type 1 
# Passive Roots to have AHA + Root with SUBJ encoding the agent. Those 
# two constructions are in complementary distribution:

# A. Case of Passive Roots - Type 1: Root takes a THEME subject =

# Passive Root = vaki 'has.been.unwittingly.broken' or 'is.able.to.be.broken'

  Vakin'i Paoly ny fitaratra.			
# Vaki-     n(a)      i    Paoly ny  fitaratra. [ Root vaki, stress on va]
# Root.vaki-clitic.na D.sg Paul  the glass
# Either 'The glass has been unwittingly broken by Paul' or 'Paul managed to break the glass'.
# NOTE: The ABILITATIVE prefix AHA is absent from the sequence. The agent is introduced
# by the clitic na 'by'.


  Nahavaky ny fitaratra i Paoly.
# N-   aha-vaky      ny  fitaratra i    Paoly.
# past-AHA-Root.vaki the glass     D.sg Paul
# 'Paul managed to break the glass'
# NOTE: The ABILITATIVE prefix AHA is present inside the sequence. The agent is the subject
# of the sequence.

# Ungrammatical
  Nahavakin'i Paoly ny fitaratra. (0! 0 0 0)
# N-   aha-vaki-     n(a)      i    Paoly ny  fitaratra.
# Past-AHA-Root.vaki-clitic.na D.sg Paul  the glass
# 'The glass has been unwittingly broken by Paul'
# NOTE: Irretrievably ungrammatical with the co-occurrence of ABILITATIVE AHA and clitic na.


  Vakin'i Paoly ny fitaratra.			
# Vaki-     (i)n(a)  i    Paoly ny  fitaratra. [ Stem vaki, stress on ki]
# Stem.vaki-suff.ina D.sg Paul  the glass
# Either 'The glass is being deliberately broken by Paul' or 'The glass is usually broken
# by Paul.'


# B. Case of Passive Roots - Type 2: Root takes an EXPERIENCER subject.
# The above does not apply, i.e. ABILITATIVE aha is impossible; instead we
# get a CAUSAL aha with fronted OBL element. But, Passive Root type 2 can still take
# an agent introduced by clitic na.


# Root = lasa 'gone';  Stem = lasan

  Lasa      i    Paoly.
# Root.gone D.sg Paul
# 'Paul left.'

  Inona no nahalasa an'i Paoly?
# Inona no    n-   aha-lasa      an' i    Paoly?
# What  focus past-AHA-Root.gone acc D.sg Paul
# 'What caused Paul to go?'

  Lasan               i    Paoly ny entana.
# Root.gone-clitic.na D.sg Paul  the luggage
# 'Paul took the luggage away.'


# A Passive Root has to give way to a Passive Stem in a Derived nominal:

  ny nahalasanan'i Paoly
# ny  n-   aha-        lasan-     an(a)    i    Paoly
# the past-Default.AHA-Stem.lasan-suff.ana D.sg Paul
# 'the fact that/moment when Paul left (this world)'

  ny fahalasanan'i Paoly
# ny  f-            aha-        lasan-     an(a)    i    Paoly
# the F.nominalizer-Default.AHA-Stem.lasan-suff.ana D.sg Paul
# 'Paul's demise'


# C. Case of Passive Roots - Type 3: Root takes a subject, which is 
# neiher a THEME nor an EXPERIENCER with a fronted OBL element; Passive 
# Root Type 3 can also take an agent introduced by clitic na.

# Root = voa 'hit'; Stem = voaz '(let.someone/something).be.hit'

  Voan'i Paoly ilay fitaratra.
# Voa-     n(a)      i    Paoly ilay  fitaratra.
# Root.voa-clitic.na D.sg Paul  DX.sg glass
# 'The (previous mention) glass has been hit by Paul' meaning
# Either 'Paul has been able to hit the (p.m.) glass' or 'Paul 
# has managed to hit the (p.m.) glass.' In addition, there is also
# the meaning where Paul unwittingly hit the glass.


  Ahoana no nahavoazan'i Paoly an'ilay fitaratra?
# Ahoana no    n-   aha-        voaz-     an(a)    i    Paoly an' ilay  fitaratra?
# How    focus past-Default.AHA-Stem.voaz-suff.ana D.sg Paul  acc DX.sg glass
# Either 'How was Paul able to hit the (previous mention) glass?' or 'How did Paul
# manage to hit the (previous mention) glass?'


# A Passive Root has to give way to a Passive Stem in a Derived nominal:

  ny nahavoazan'i Paoly an'ilay fitaratra
# ny n-   aha-        voaz-     an(a)    i    Paoly an' ilay  fitaratra
# ny past-Default.AHA-Stem.voaz-suff.ana D.sg Paul  acc DX.sg glass
# 'the fact that/manner how Paul managed to hit the (previous mention) glass'


  ny fahavoazan'i Paoly
# ny f-            aha-        voaz-     an(a)    i    Paoly
# ny F.nominalizer-Default.AHA-Stem.voaz-suff.ana D.sg Paul 
# 'Paul's predicament'



# (b) Non-Passive Roots &  Derived Nominals (possible only with Stems)

# On the other hand, with a NonPassive Root, it is only possible to have the sequence 
# ABILITATIVE AHA + Root with SUBJ encoding the agent:

# NonPassive Root = tsangana 'standing up', active voice verb = transitive m + an + 
# (ts)angana 'to erect', intransitive m + i + tsangana 'to stand up'

  Tsy nahatsangana i Paoly. 		
# Tsy n-   aha-tsangana      i    Paoly. [ Intransitive V]
# Not past-AHA-Root.tsangana D.sg Paul
# Either 'Paul was not able to stand up' or 'Paul did not manage to stand up.'


# Derived Nominals

# a/ Intransitive predicate based on Stem tsangan [ Stem tsangan, stress on gan]

  ny nitsanganan'ny olona
# ny  n-   i-tsangan-     (a)n(a)  ny   olona
# the past-I-Stem.tsangan-suff.ana the  people
# 'the fact that/reason why the people stood up'

  ny fitsanganan'ny olona
# ny  f-            i-tsangan-     an(a)      i    Paoly
# the F.nominalizer-I-Stem.tsangan-suff.ana D.sg Paul
# 'people's rising from the Dead'


b/ Transitive predicate based on Stem tsangan [ Stem tsangan, stress on gan]

  ny nananganan'ny olona ny saina
# ny  n-      an-(ts)angan-an(a)    ny  olona  ny  saina
# the past-AN-Stem.tsangan-suff.ana the people the flag
# 'the fact that/moment when the flag was raised by the people'


  ny fananganan'ny olona ny saina
# ny  f-            an-(ts)angan-   an(a)    ny  olona  ny  saina
# the F.nominalizer-AN-Stem.tsangan-suff.ana the people the flag
# 'the raising of the flag by the people'


# It is possible to substitute the perfective aspect-marker prefix VOA or TAFA for ABILITATIVE AHA:

# VOA + Root + clitic.na
# Substitution of VOA for AHA is possible with a transitive predicate.

  Voatsangan'i Paoly ny lay. 		
# Voa-tsanga<na>-   n(a)      i    Paoly ny  lay. [ Transitive V m + an + (ts)angana 'to erect']
# VOA-Root.tsangana-clitic.na D.sg Paul  the tent
# 'The tent was able to be put up by Paul'
# Either 'Paul was able to set up the tent' or 'Paul managed to set up the tent.'


# TAFA + Root + clitic.na
# Substitution of TAFA for AHA is possible with an intransitive predicate.

  Tafatsangan'i Paoly ny lay. 		
# Tafa-tsanga<na>-   n(a)      i    Paoly ny  lay. [ Intransitive V m + i + tsangana 'to stand up']
# TAFA-Root.tsangana-clitic.na D.sg Paul  the tent
# 'The tent was able to be put up by Paul'
# Either 'Paul was able to set up the tent' or 'Paul managed to set up the tent.'


  Tsy tafatsangana i Paoly.		
# Tsy tafa-tsangana i Paoly [ Intransitive V m + i + tsangana]
# Not TAFA-Root.tsangana D.sg Paul
# Either 'Paul was not able to stand up' or 'Paul did not manage to stand up.'



# (c) Default.AHA & variants

# First, note the Default.AHA (possible only with Stems) in derived nominals like 
# 'fahavoazana''calamity' or 'fahatongavana''arrival'. 

  fahavoazana
# f-            aha-voaz-     ana
# Nominalizer.f-AHA-Stem.voaz-suff.ana
# 'calamity'

# Ungrammatical
  fahavoana (0! 0 0 0)
# f-aha-voa-(a)na

# where Root = voa 'hit'; Stem = voaz and where there is no corresponding verb 
# comprising a verbal prefix.

# or Default.AHA (possible only with Stems) as in

  fahatongavana
# f-            aha-tongav-     ana
# Nominalizer.f-AHA-Stem.tongav-suff.ana
# 'arrival'

# Ungrammatical
  fahatongana (0! 0 0 0)
# f-aha-tonga-(a)na

# where Root = tonga 'have.arrived'; Stem = tongav and where there is no corresponding verb 
# comprising a verbal prefix.


# Second, note the case of variant A of AHA involving Non-Passive root isi 'exist'.

# Illustrative example using form asiana:
# a(ha)       + (i)si   + ana
# Default.AHA + Stem.si + suff.ana
# Note: AHA reduced to A, verb isi drops its verbal prefix i to be replaced by DEFAULT AHA.

  Nasian'i Jeanne sira ny sakafo.
# N   a          si   an'   i Jeanne sira ny sakafo.
# N + a(ha) + (i)si + an(a) i Jeanne sira ny sakafo
# 'The food was put salt to by Jeanne.'
# Note the Passive.2 circumfix 'verbal prefix .... suffix.ana' surrounding the stem 'si';
# with verbs without a verbal prefix of their own, Default verbal prefix AHA is used.


# Default prefix AHA is the only possibility with Root voa 'hit', which canNOT take
# any prefix at all:
# nonexistent form mamoa = m + am + (v)oa 'to hit', with prefix AN(A);
# nonexistent form mivoa = m + i + voa 'to be hit', with prefix I.


# (i) CAUSAL AHA

  Nahavoa an'i Paoly io.
# N    + aha + voa      an' i    Paoly io.
# past + AHA + Root.voa acc D.sg Paul this
# 'This caused Paul to be hit.'

# (ii) but it accepts default AHA along with suffix.ana surrounding the relevant Stem

  Ahoana no nahavoazan' i Paoly an io?
# Ahoana no    n    + aha + voaz      + an(a)    i    Paoly an  io?
# How    focus past + AHA + Stem.voaz + suff.ana D.sg Paul  acc this
# 'How did Paul manage to do this?'


# Ungrammatical
  Ahoana no nahavoan' i Paoly an io? (0! 0 0 0)
# Ahoana no    n    + aha + voa      + n(a)      i    Paoly an  io?
# How    focus past + AHA +  Root.voa + clitic.na D.sg Paul  acc this
# 'How did Paul manage to do this?'


# What is true for Root 'voa'be.hit' also holds for Root tonga 'have.arrived', 
# which canNOT take any primary prefix at all:
# nonexistent form manonga = m + an + (t)onga 'to come' with prefix AN(A); 
# nonexistent form mitonga = m + i + tonga 'to arrive' with prefix I.

# (i)  CAUSAL AHA
  Inona no nahatonga an'i Jeanne?
# Inona no    n    + aha + tonga      an' i    Jeanne?
# What  focus past + AHA + Root.tonga acc D.sg Jeanne
# 'What caused Jeanne to come?'

# (ii) but it accepts default AHA

  Ahoana no nahatongavan'i Paoly?
# Ahoana no n + aha + tongav + an(a) i Paoly?
# How    focus past + AHA + Stem.tongav + suff.ana
# 'How did Paul arrive?'

# Ungrammatical
  Ahoana no nahatongan'i Paoly? (0! 0 0 0)
# Ahoana no    n    + aha + tonga      + n(a)      i    Paoly?
# How    focus past + AHA + Root.tonga + clitic.na D.sg Paul
# 'How did Paul arrive?'


# What has just been described applies to the following subset as well:
# { azo 'be.caught', foi 'be.given.up', laitra 'be.chewed', hita 'be.seen', 
# isi 'exist', ... };

# However even the above is NOT possible with this other subset:
# { aleo 'is.preferred', hala 'is.hated', mati 'is.dead', avi 'be.on.one's.way', 
# tami 'coming', tia 'is.loved'(passive root), ... }




# Part 5: A-Passive & Thematic Roles

# A-Passives occupy a central area of Malagasy grammar in that they bridge 
# a wide gap between UNMARKED structures (involving, for instance, non-
# perfective aspect) and MARKED structures (involving perfective aspect). 
# Thematic roles will be used to account for the distribution of A-Passive 
# (Section 1), as opposed to that of passivized AMP-I-predicate (Section 2)
# and a possible alternation between the two (Section 3).

# Section 1: ONLY A-Passive possible

# The intransitive I-predicate can only accommodate an EXPERIENCER as SUBJ. 

# 1- Prototypical thematic frames:
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with A-Passive predicate;
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with intransitive I-predicate.

# (i) Relevant Non-passive roots : A-Passive encodes EXPERIENCER as SUBJ
# { mihanaka 'to spread' intransitive from hanaka (NONPASSROOT spread), 
# mihintsana 'to drop intransitive from hintsana (NONPASSROOT shaking), 
# mihoatra 'to surpass' from hoatra (NONPASSROOT like_equal_or_that_which_
# surprises_or_surpass), mikimpi 'to shut down, intransitive from kimpi 
# (NONPASSROOT shutdown), mikisaka 'to move to the side' intransitive from 
# (NONPASSROOT move_to_one_side), mikombona 'to close' intransitive from 
# kombona (NONPASSROOT closure), mikosoka 'to rub' transitive from 
# (NONPASSROOT rubbing), milefa 'to flee' intransitive from lefa 
# (NONPASSROOT flee), milevina 'to be buried' intransitive from levina 
# (NONPASSROOT burial), milona 'to soak' intransitive from lona 
# (NONPASSROOT soaking), miparitaka 'to scatter' intransitive from 
# paritaka (NONPASSROOT scattering), miposaka 'to explode, to get 
# exposed' intransitive from posaka (NONPASSROOT revelation), 
# mitambesatra 'to weigh heavily' intransitive from tambesatra 
# (NONPASSROOT heavy_weight), mitsilani 'to be on one's back' 
# intransitive from tsilani (NONPASSROOT on_its_back), mitsontsorika
# 'to head downwards' intransitive from tsontsorika (NONPASSROOT head_
# downwards), ...}

# Illustrative examples:
  Nahanak'i Jeanne ny rano.
# N-   a-     hanak(a)    i    Jeanne ny  rano
# Past-A.Pass-Root.hanaka D.sg Jeanne the water
#                                     EXPERIENCER
# 'The water was spread by Jeanne.'
				
  Nihanaka ny rano.
# N-   i-     hanaka      ny  rano.
# Past-pref.I-Root.hanaka the water
#                         EXPERIENCER
# 'The water was spreading.'

# Ungrammatical					
  Nampihanahan'i Jeanne ny rano. (0! 0 0 0)
# N-   AMP-pref.i-hanah-     ana      i    Jeanne ny  rano
# Past-AMP-pref.i-Stem.hanah-suff.ana D.sg Jeanne the water
#                                                 THEME
# 'The water was spread by Jeanne.'


# Variant frames:
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with A-Passive predicate & obligatory OBLloc;
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with intransitive I-predicate comprising obligatory PPloc.

# { mivili 'to deviate' intransitive from vili (NONPASSROOT steering_deviation), ... } 

# Illustrative example:
  Navilin'i Paoly tary ny fiara.
# N-   a-     vili-     n(a)      i    Paoly t-ary      ny  fiara.
# Past-A.Pass-Root.vili-clitic.na D.sg Paul  perf-there the car
#                                            OBLloc     EXPERIENCER
# 'The car was steered over there by Paul.'

# Ungrammatical
  Nampivilin'i Paoly tary ny fiara. (0! 0 0 0)
# N-   amp-i-    vili-     (i)n(a)  i    Paoly t-ary      ny fiara.
# Past-AMP-prf.I-Stem.vili-suff.ina D.sg Paul  perf-there the car
#                                                         THEME
# 'The car was steered over there by Paul.'


# (ii) Relevant Passive roots : A-Passive has THEME as SUBJ
# { miharihari 'to be evident' intransitive from harihari (NONPASSROOT exposed_
# to_view_or__made_known), milatsaka 'to drop' intransitive from latsaka 
# (PASSROOT dropped), milentika 'to sink' intransitive from (PASSROOT sinking), 
# mirendrika 'to sink' intransitive from rendrika (PASSROOT sunk_melted),  
# mitobaka 'to overflow' intransitive from tobaka '(PASSROOT overflowing), ...}

# Variation.1 :
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with A-Passive predicate;
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with root predicate 'teraka' comprising a THEME object;
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with transitive I-predicate comprising a THEME object.

# { miteraka 'to give birth to' transitive from teraka (PASSROOT born), ... }

  Atera-behivavy ny olombelona.
# A-     tera(ka)-   (v>)behivavy ny  olombelona.
# A.Pass-Root.teraka women        the humankind
#                                 EXPERIENCER
# 'Humankind is born of women.'

  Teraka zazalahy i Jeanne.
# Teraka      zaza- lahy i    Jeanne.
# Root.teraka child-male D.sg Jeanne
#             THEME      EXPERIENCER
# 'Jeanne has given birth to a male child.'

  Niteraka zazalahy i Jeanne.
# N-i-teraka             zaza- lahy i    Jeanne.
# Past-prf.I-Root.teraka child-male D.sg Jeanne
#                        THEME      EXPERIENCER
# 'Jeanne has given birth to a male child.'


# Variation.2 :
# INSTRUMENT as SUBJ with A-Passive predicate & THEME encoded as OBJ.2;
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with intransitive I-predicate.

# { manondraka transitive 'to water',  mitondraka 'to usually get watered'
# ' from tondraka (PASSROOT overflowing), ... }

# Illustrative examples:
  Nitondraka ny voninkazo.
# N-   i-     tondraka      ny  voninkazo.
# Past-pref.I-Root.tondraka the flowers
#                           EXPERIENCER
# 'The flowers were (usually) watered.'

  Natondrak'i Jeanne voninkazo ny rano.
# N-   a-     tondrak'      i    Jeanne voninkazo ny  rano.
# Past-A.Pass-Root.tondraka D.sg Jeanne flowers   the water
#                                                 INSTRUMENT
#'The water was used by Jeanne to water the flowers.'



# Section 2: ONLY passivized sequence AMP + I-predicate possible

# The intransitive I-predicate can only accommodate a THEME as SUBJ;
# A-Passive IMPOSSIBLE with the following BUT entire sequence AMP + I-predicate 
# can be passivized. Note that amp is not a primary prefix.

# Prototypical thematic frames:
# THEME as SUBJ with complex passivized AMP + I-predicate;
# THEME as SUBJ with intransitive I-predicate.

# (i) Relevant NonPassive roots :
# {  mianiani 'to take an oath' intransitive from aniani (NONPASSROOT oath), 
# mihinana 'to eat' transitive from hinana (NONPASSROOT eating), mihomehi 
# 'to laugh' intransitive from homehi (NONPASSROOT laugh), mitaona 'to transport' 
# transitive from taona (NONPASSROOT to_carry), mitondra 'to carry' transitive 
# from tondra (NONPASSROOT steering), mitsimpona ' to handpick' transitive from
# tsimpona (NONPASSROOT hand_picking), ... }

# (ii) Relevant Passive roots :
# { miaraka 'to go with' intransitive from araka (PASSROOT can_be_followed), 
# mihaino 'to listen transitive from haino (PASSROOT listened_to), milefitra 
# 'to be tolerant' intransitive from lefitra (PASSROOT is_tolerable), miraikitra 
# 'to stick' intransitive from raikitra (PASSROOT agreed_upon_or_stuck), mitadidi 
# 'to memorize' transitive from tadidi (NONPASSROOT memorize), mitazana 'to watch' 
# transitive from tazana (NONPASSROOT watch), miteraka 'to give birth to' transitive
# from teraka (PASSROOT born), ... }

# Illustrative example:
   Nampijalian'i Paoly i Jeanne.
#  N-   amp-i-     jali-     an(a)    i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
#  Past-AMP-pref.I-Stem.jali-suff.ana D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
#                                                THEME
# 'Jeanne was made to suffer/tortured by Paul.'
# NOTE the manipulative meaning attributed to the prefix amp.

# Ungrammatical
   Najalian'i Paoly i Jeanne. (0! 0 0 0)
#  N-   a-     jali-     n(a)      i    Paoly i    Jeanne.
#  Past-A.Pass-Root.jali-clitic.na D.sg Paul  D.sg Jeanne
#  'Jeanne was made to suffer/tortured by Paul.'


# Section 3: Either A-Passive or passivized sequence AMP + I-predicate possible

# The I-predicate can accommodate either an EXPERIENCER subject with an A-Passive 
# predicate or a THEME subject with the passivized sequence AMP + I-predicate. Again
# note that amp is not a primary prefix.

# (i) Relevant NonPassive roots : EXPERIENCER as SUBJ
# { miakatra 'to go up' intransitive from akatra (NONPASSROOT ascension), miandri 
# 'to wait for' transitive from andri (NONPASSROOT expectation), mihatra 'to apply' 
# intransitive from hatra (NONPASSROOT application), mihinana 'to eat' transitive 
# from hinana (NONPASSROOT eating), mihomehi 'to laugh' intransitive from homehi 
# (NONPASSROOT laugh), mita 'to cross' transitive from ita (NONPASSROOT crossing),  
# mitaona 'to transport' transitive from taona (NONPASSROOT to_carry)--with the 
# meaning of 'asking someone to transport things...', mitondra 'to carry' transitive
# from tondra (NONPASSROOT steering)--with the meaning of 'asking someone to carry 
# something, mivantana 'to go straight ahead' intransitive from vantana (NONPASSROOT
# straight_forward_open), ...}

# The same set as above allow the SUBJ of the intransitive I-predicate to be construed
# as a THEME.

# Illustrative example with I-predicate accompanied by THEME as SUBJ:
  Nampihinanan'i Jeanne vary i Koto.
# N-   amp-i-     hinan-     an(a)    i    Jeanne vary i    Koto.
# Past-AMP-pref.I-Stem.hinan-suff.ana D.sg Jeanne rice D.sg Koto
#                                                      THEME
# 'Koto was spoon-fed rice by Jeanne.'
# NOTE the manipulative meaning attributed to the prefix amp.
# If Koto is construed as an EXPERIENCER-SUBJ,i.e. eating rice on his own then 
# the sequence is ungrammatical.


# Variations:
# EXPERIENCER as SUBJ with A-Passive predicate comprising obligatory OBLloc;
# THEME as SUBJ with passivized AMP + I-predicate comprising obligatory OBLloc

# Illustrative example with A-Passive:
  Navantan'i Jeanne tary ilay taratasy.
# N-   a-     vanta<na>-     n(a)'     i    Jeanne t-ary      ilay  taratasy.
# Past-A.pass-Root.vanta<na>-clitic.na D.sg Jeanne perf-there DX.sg letter
#                                                             EXPERIENCER
# 'The (previous mention) letter was directed there by Jeanne.'
			
  Nivantana tary ilay taratasy.
# N-   i-    vantana      t-ary      ilay taratasy.
# Past-prf.I-Root.vantana perf-there the letter
# 'The (previous mention) letter went straight there.'

# Illustrative example with Passive AMP + I-predicate:				
  Nampivantanin'i Jeanne tary ilay taratasy.
# N-   amp-i-     vantan-     in(a)    i    Jeanne t-ary      ilay taratasy.
# Past-AMP-pref.I-Stem.vantan-suff.ina D.sg Jeanne perf-there the  letter
#                                                             THEME
# 'The (previous mention) letter was ordered & directed there by Jeanne.'
# NOTE the manipulative meaning attributed to the prefix amp.


# (ii) Relevant Passive roots : Contrast between EXPERIENCER & THEME as SUBJ
# { Relevant Passive roots include the ones found in
# { miaraka 'to go with' intransitive from araka (PASSROOT can_be_followed), 
# miteraka 'to give birth to' transitive from teraka (PASSROOT born), ... }

# Illustrative example with EXPERIENCER as SUBJ:
  Naterak'i Jeanne i Koto.
# N-   a-     terak'      i    Jeanne i    Koto.
# Past-A.Pass-Root.teraka D.sg Jeanne D.sg Koto
#                                     EXPERIENCER
#'Koto was born to Jeanne.'


# Illustrative example with THEME as SUBJ:
  Nampiterahan'ny dokotera i Jeanne.
# N-   amp-i-     terah-     an(a)    ny  dokotera i    Jeanne.
# Past-AMP-pref.I-Stem.terah-suff.ana the doctor   D.sg Jeanne
#                                                  THEME
# 'Jeanne was made/assisted by the doctor to give birth'
# NOTE the manipulative meaning attributed to the prefix amp.