# Verb-initial grammars: A multilingual/parallel perspective # ESRC Project RES-000-23-0505 # Oxford University # Charles Randriamasimanana # Malagasy syntax & semantics: # Passive affixes in Malagasy - ESRC-OX-05-CR106/204. # As outlined in Randriamasimanana (1986: 492, Table 13), and as will be # illustrated below, when a typical direct object (DO) is 'promoted to subject in # Malagasy, the verb takes the '(no)...ina' form of passive --although when the # verb contains in it the INCEPTIVE aspect feature, the appropriate affix is # a-passive. In addition, when an indirect object (IO) gets promoted to subject, # the suffix 'ana' is used instead of the suffix 'ina' for Passive.1. Furthermore, # when a typical Oblique argument is 'promoted' to subject, i.e. for instance an # INSTRUMENT-Oblique, then Passive.2 with the circumfix 'an...an(a)' or 'i...an(a)' # surrounding the verbal stem is mandatory. Last but not least, note that the circumfix # 'an...an(a)' or 'i...an(a)' for Passive2 typically correlates with a PARTITIVE # reading on the grammatical subject of many verbs like 'mandidy''pres-cut' # or is typically accompanied by a non-specific direct object. # We have the following situation: # Passive 1 involving promotion of a DO to subject = suffix 'ina' as in 'no...in(a)' /nu...ina/ # or Passive 1 involving promotion of an IO to subject = suffix 'ana' as in 'no...ana' /nu...ana/, # both being non-perfective; in the perfective, circumfix replaced by prefix 'voa'; # alternatively a.prefix-passive, also in the non-perfective aspect. # However note that the prefix 'no' in 'no...ina' represents the passive voice # past tense-marker and that it can be left out altogether when reference is made # to the present tense in the passive voice --sometimes symbolised as zero morpheme # ø; in addition, the future tense-marker for the passive is 'ho', as in 'ho...ina'. # Important note about dubious morpheme '(i)na': There has been a confusion in the published # literature between Passive1 suffix 'ina' of the circumfix 'no...ina' and the epenthetic 'na' # illustrated below in root forms such as 'hita + na', which is NEVER accompanied by any prefix # of any kind. A typical confusion between epenthetic 'na' and Passive1 'ina' is notably found # in Keenan (2000), as will be shown below. Among an entire range of differences,(exactly like # a clitic pronoun) epenthetic 'na' does not require Stress Shift, expected of suffix 'ina' as # explained in the on-line document 'Malagasy phonetics/phonology & morphology: Stress assignment: # ESRC-OX-05-CR109'. In addition, one other on-line document labelled 'Malagasy phonetics/ # phonology & morphology: Malagasy ka, tra, na endings of words: ESRC-OX-05-CR104' does provide # numerous illustrative examples involving epenthetic 'na'. # Passive 2 = Circumstantial/Relative forms = suffix 'ana' resulting from the 'promotion' # of an argument Oblique to subject, as in discontinuous form 'an...ana' or 'i..ana' # surrounding the passive verbal stem. Whether the prefix is 'an' or 'i' depends on # the verb in question. # References: Standard or classical Malagasy, but NOT Colloquial Malagasy. # Consult Abinal et Malzac. Dictionnaire malgache-français.Ambozontany, # Fianarantsoa 1987; Malzac Dictionnaire français-malgache. Ambozontany, # Antananarivo 1995. Rajemisa. Rakibolana malagasy. Ambozontany, # Fianarantsoa 1995. # The situation can be summed up as follows: # Form alternation { ... ina | ....ana} # Passive 1 (DO > SU) = no...ina, no...in, no...n no...na, i...ina, i...an; # Passive 1 (IO > SU) = no...ana, no...an, all in the non-perfective; # also a.prefix-passive, non-perfective aspect; # Passive 2 = an....ana, an...en, an...na, i...ana, all non-perfective; # Passive 2 = Oblique-argument > Su; # All of the above affixes involve Control structures. # CONTROL = DELIBERATE ACTIVITY and as such is totally incompatible # with PERCEPTION verbs. See elaboration and illustrations in # Randriamasimanana (1986: 29-74). # In Malagasy PERCEPTION verbs are part of a finite list of root verbs, # which generally describe an AUTONOMOUS event, i.e. typically no # involvement of an AGENT and may take no affixes at all. # See Randriamasimanana (1986: 450 and subsequent pages) for further # elaboration and illustrations. However, it is to be noted that the # list of such verbs comprises at least three different subtypes of root # predicates: One subtype like 'vaky' 'be.broken' may optionally involve # an AGENT as well as a THEME and as a direct result may combine with the # affix no...ina; another subtype --MOTION verbs like 'lasa' 'be.gone'-- # cannot combine with the affix no ... ina as it requires an EXPERIENCER; # finally a third type of root predicates -- PERCEPTION verbs like 'hita'-- # completely rules out such a combination, as it requires a THEME as its # grammatical subject. See a somewhat similar summary in Randriamasimanana # (1986: 29). Hitan'i Paoly ilay trano. # Hita-n(a) i Paoly ilay trano. # root.hita-ep.na D.sg Paul DX.sg house(s) # Lit. "The (previous mention) house was seen by Paul." # "Paul saw the (previous mention) house." # 'Hita' is a root verb, a PERCEPTION verb and as such canNOT combine # with a CONTROL passive affix such as 'no .. ina'; indeed, passive no...ina # corresponds to the DELIBERATE ACTIVITY MANIPULATIVE causative prefix an(a) # in the active voice, which requires an AGENT for its grammatical subject as # well as a PATIENT for its direct object. On the other hand, the root verb # hita requires a THEME as its grammatical subject and a genitive to encode # the EXPERIENCER. It follows that it may be appropriate to analyse the 'na' showing # up on the root 'hita''be.seen' as an epenthetic syllable rather than a passive # voice suffix, which necessarily requires a stress shift. At any rate, in this # sequence, there is no stress shift at all on 'hita', as the stress is and remains # on the initial syllable 'hi' in 'hita'. # Ungrammatical Nohitan'ny lehilahy ny trano.(0! 0 0 0) # no- hita- n' ny lehilahy ny trano # past.pass-stem.hita-suff.(a)na Det.unspec man/men Det.unspec house(s) # "The houses were seen by the men." # This sequence is from Keenan (2000) in Formal Issues in # Austronesian Linguistics, eds. Ileana Paul, Vivianne Philips and # Lisa Travis, 27-47. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic # Press. # No- hita-n' ny lehilahy ny trano. # no.....in(a) hita ny lehilahy ny trano # [ + CONTROL] [ - CONTROL] Det.unspec man/men Det.unspec house(s) # This sentence simply does NOT exist in Malagasy as it involves an internal # contradiction: As noted earlier, the passive affix 'no ... ina' corresponds # to the MANIPULATIVE causative prefix an(a) in the active voice; it contains # the inherent feature [ + CONTROL ] implying DELIBERATE ACTIVITY since the # putative stem 'hita' should mean something like 'to see, to look for'; by # contrast, the PERCEPTION root 'hita' contains the reverse inherent feature # [ - CONTROL ] meaning non-DELIBERATE ACTIVITY as it is a PERCEPTION verb. # active = n-an-(ts)ipy; passive 1 = n-a-tsipy (non-perfective), voa-tsipy (perfective); # alternatively, no-tsipa-z-ana, non-perfective, note the unusual suffix 'ana'; # passive 2 = n-an-(ts)ipa-z-ana; Nanipy rano i Jeanne. # N- an- (ts)ipy rano D.sg Jeanne # past-prf.an-root.tsipy water Jeanne # 'Jeanne threw water out. # This sequence originally came from Randriamasimanana (1986: 70, ex 100a). # N- an(ao) - tsipy # past-caus.do root.throw # Note the non-definite accusative phrase 'rano'. Nanipy rano be dia be i Jeanne. # N- an- (ts)ipy rano be dia be i Jeanne # past-prf.an-root.tsipy water a.lot D.sg Jeanne # 'Jeanne threw a lot of water out. # Note the presence of the complex quantifier 'be dia be''a lot'. Ny rano no nanipy i Jeanne. # Ny rano no n-an- (ts)ipy i Jeanne # Topic water focus past-prf.an-root.tsipy D.sg Jeanne # 'As far as water is concerned, Jeanne threw some out.' # Note the non-specific preposed object 'rano''water' and at the same # time, the verb 'nanipy''past-throw' is in the active voice. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny rano no nanipy be dia be i Jeanne. # Ny rano no n-an- (ts)ipy be dia be i Jeanne # Topic water focus past-prf.an-root.tsipy a lot D.sg Jeanne # 'As far as water is concerned, Jeanne threw a lot out.' # Note the non-specific preposed object 'rano''water' and at the same # time, the verb 'nanipy''past-throw' is in the active voice alongside # the complex quantifier 'be dia be''a lot'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Nanipy rano tamin'ilay zinga i Jeanne. # N- an- (ts)ipy rano t-amin' ilay zinga i Jeanne # past-prf.an-root.tsipy water perf-with DX.sg pitcher D.sg Jeanne # 'Jeanne threw water out with the pitcher.' # The initial elements 'ts' of the root 'tsipy' drop with prefixation. # Note the instrument-oblique 't-amin'ilay zinga'. Atsipin'i Jeanne amin'ny zinga ny rano. # A-tsipi-n(a) i Jeanne ø-amin' ny zinga ny rano. # A.pass-root.tsipi-ep.na DX.sg Jeanne non-perf-with Det pitcher Det water # 'The water was started to get thrown away by Jeanne with the pitcher.' Atsipin'i Jeanne ny rano. # A-tsipi-n(a) i Jeanne ny rano. # A.pass-root.tsipi-ep.na DX.sg Jeanne Det water # 'The water was started to get thrown away by Jeanne.' Natsipin' i Jeanne ny rano. # N- a- tsipi-n(a) D-sg Jeanne Det.unspec rano. # past-pass-root.tsipi-pass.by D Jeanne the water # '(All of) the water was thrown out by Jeanne'. # This sequence originally came from Randriamasimanana (1986: 70, ex 100b); # note the emergence of the epenthetic n(a) 'by' attached to the root tsipi, # where the vowel i is not word-final and therefore not written y -- as was # the case in the previous example; what used to be in an accusative position # is now a subject (ny rano). Voatsipin'i Jeanne tamin'ny zinga ny rano. # Voa-tsipi-n(a) i Jeanne t-amin' ny zinga ny rano. # perf-root.tsipi-ep.na DX.sg Jeanne perf-with Det pitcher Det water # 'The water has been successfully thrown away by Jeanne with the pitcher.' Voatsipin'i Jeanne ny rano. # Voa-tsipi-n(a) i Jeanne ny rano. # perf-root.tsipi-ep.na DX.sg Jeanne Det water # 'The water has been successfully thrown away by Jeanne.' Voatsipy tamin'ny zinga ny rano. # Voa-tsipy t-amin' ny zinga ny rano. # perf-root.tsipy perf-with Det pitcher Det water # 'The water has been successfully thrown away with the pitcher.' Voatsipy ny rano. # Voa-tsipy ny rano. # perf-root.tsipy Det water # 'The water has been successfully thrown away.' Tsipazan'i Jeanne rano amin'ny zinga ny afo. # ø-tsipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano ø-amin' ny zinga ny afo. # pass.pres-stem.tsipaz-ana DX.sg Jeanne water non-perf-with Det pitcher Det fire # 'The fire was being (deliberately) thrown (some) water with the pitcher by Jeanne.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Tsipazana rano amin'ny zinga ny afo. # ø-tsipaz-ana rano ø-amin' ny zinga ny afo. # pass.pres-stem.tsipaz-ana water non-perf-with Det pitcher Det fire # Either 'The fire was being (deliberately) thrown water at with the pitcher' # or 'Fires are usually (deliberately) thrown (some) water at with the pitcher.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Tsipazan'i Jeanne rano ny afo. # ø-tsipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano ny afo. # pass.pres-stem.tsipaz-ana DX.sg Jeanne water Det fire # 'The fire was being (deliberately) thrown (some) water at by Jeanne.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Tsipazana rano ny afo. # ø-tsipaz-ana rano ny afo. # pass.pres-stem.tsipaz-ana water Det fire # Either 'The fire is being (deliberately) thrown (some) water at' # or 'Fires are usually/habitually (deliberately) thrown (some) water at.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Notsipazan'i Jeanne rano tamin'ny zinga ny afo. # No-tsipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano t-amin' ny zinga ny afo. # pass.past-stem.tsipaz-ana DX.sg Jeanne water perf-with Det pitcher Det fire # 'The fire was deliberately thrown (some) water at with the pitcher by Jeanne.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Notsipazan'i Jeanne rano ny afo. # No-tsipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano ny afo. # pass.past-stem.tsipaz-ana DX.sg Jeanne water Det fire # 'The fire was deliberately thrown (some) water at by Jeanne.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Hotsipazan'i Jeanne rano amin'ny zinga ny afo. # Ho-tsipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano ø-amin' ny zinga ny afo. # pass.fut-stem.tsipaz-ana DX.sg Jeanne water non-perf-with Det pitcher Det fire # 'The fire will be deliberately thrown (some) water at with the pitcher by Jeanne.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Hotsipazan'i Jeanne rano ny afo. # Ho-tsipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano ny afo. # pass.fut-stem.tsipaz-ana DX.sg Jeanne water Det fire # 'The fire will be deliberately thrown (some) water at by Jeanne.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Nanipazan'i Jeanne ny rano. # N- an- (ts)ipaz-an(a) i Jeanne ny rano. # past-stem.anipaz-suff.ana D.sg Jeanne Det water # "A portion of the water was being thrown out by Jeanne." # The passive 2 imperative stem is 'anipa-z-o''be.thrown-epC-by.you' # --where 'z' is an epenthetic consonant-- provides the relevant stem # for the form for passive 2: the discontinuous form is 'an...an(a)'. # What used to be an intrument-oblique is now a subject 'ilay zinga'. # Note the correlation 'an...an(a)' of Passive2 and the # PARTITIVE reading usually associated with this circumfix. # Note the crucial absence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Nanipazan'i Jeanne rano ilay zinga. # N- an- (ts)ipaz- an(a) i Jeanne rano ilay zinga. # past-stem.anipaz-suff.ana D.sg Jeanne water DX.sg pitcher # "The pitcher was being (deliberately) used by Jeanne to throw water." # The passive 2 imperative stem is 'anipa-z-o''be.thrown-epC-by.you' # --where 'z' is an epenthetic consonant-- provides the relevant stem # for the form for passive 2: the discontinuous form is 'an...an(a)'. # What used to be an intrument-oblique is now a subject 'ilay zinga'. # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water' # which voids the correlation 'an...an(a)' of Passive2 and the # PARTITIVE reading usually associated with this circumfix. Tamin'ilay zinga no nanipazan'i Jeanne rano. # T-amin' ilay zinga no n- an- (ts)ipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano. # perf-with DX.sg pitcher focus past-stem.anipaz-suff.ana D.sg Jeanne water # "The pitcher was being (deliberately) used by Jeanne to throw water." # The passive 2 imperative stem is 'anipa-z-o''be.thrown-epC-by.you' # --where 'z' is an epenthetic consonant-- provides the relevant stem # for the form for passive 2: the discontinuous form is 'an...an(a)'. # The intrument-oblique retains its preposition and has been fronted. # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Ilay zinga no nanipazan'i Jeanne rano. # Ilay zinga no n- an- (ts)ipaz-an(a) i Jeanne rano. # DX.sg pitcher focus past-stem.anipaz-suff.ana D.sg Jeanne water # "It is the pitcher that was being (deliberately) used by Jeanne to throw water." # The passive 2 imperative stem is 'anipa-z-o''be.thrown-epC-by.you' # --where 'z' is an epenthetic consonant-- provides the relevant stem # for the form for passive 2: the discontinuous form is 'an...an(a)'. # The intrument-oblique has lost its preposition and has been fronted while # the verb must be in the Passive2 form. # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. Teo ampanipazana rano i Jeanne no tonga i Paoly. # T-eo amp-an-(ts)ipaz-ana rano i Jeanne no tonga i Paoly. # past-there amp-stem.anipaz-suff.ana water DX.sg Jeanne focus arrived DX.sg Paul # 'Jeanne was in the middle of throwing away (some) water when Paul arrived.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'rano''water'. # active = n-i-kasa; passive 1 = no-kasa-ina # passive 2 = n-i-kas(a)-ana; Nikasa hividy boky i Jeanne. # N-i-kasa h-i-vidy boky i Jeanne. # past-prf-root.kasa fut-prf-root.buy a book(s) D.sg Jeanne #'Jeanne intended to buy a book/books.' # Note that 'boky' is a direct object. Nokasain'i Jeanne hovidina ilay boky. # No- kasa- in(a) i Jeanne ho-vidi-ina ilay boky. # past.pass-stem.kasa-pass-by D.sg Jeanne fut.pass-stem.vidi-pass DX-.g book # Lit."Was intended by Jeanne the (previous mention) book will be bought." # "Jeanne intended to buy the (previous mention) book." # The root for 'n-i-kasa' ends with the vowel 'a' and the passive 1 form # is obtained by simply replacing with the suffix ina the suffix 'o' #'by.you' of the passive imperative 'kasao' . However as the following # word starts with a vowel, the final vowel 'a' of 'ana' is dropped: # Note the 'no...ina' passive 1 form of the verb 'no-kasa-ina.' # active = n-i-kasa; passive 1 = no-kasa-i(na) # As for 'hividy' its passive 1 imperative is 'vidio' from which the # suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped replaced with the expected # suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'ho...ina'. Now the two # subsequent 'i's of 'ho-vidi-ina' have fused. # Note the subject 'ilay boky'. # active = n-an-(t)ery > n-an-ery; passive 1 = no-tere-(i)na > no-tere-na # passive 2 = n-an-(t)ere-(a)na > n-an-ere-na; Nanery an'i Jeanne hitondra ilay fiara i Marie. # N-an-(t)ery an' i Jeanne h-itondra ilay fiara i Marie. # past-prf-root.tery acc D.sg Jeanne fut-drive the car D.sg Marie # "Marie forced Jeanne to drive the (previous mention) car." # Note the root 'tery' for the active voice verb 'n-an-ery'. The initial # consonant 't' of the root 'tery' drops with prefixation: # active = n-an-(t)ery; passive 1 = no-tere-ana > no-tere-na; # passive 2 = n-an-(t)ere-an(a) > n-an-ere-na # Note the accusative phrase 'an'i Jeanne'. Noteren'i Marie hitondra ilay fiara i Jeanne. # No- ter(i>e)-(i)n(a) i Marie h-itondra ilay fiara i Jeanne . # past.pass-stem.tere-pass.by D.sg Marie fut-drive the car D.sg Jeanne # "Marie was forced by Jeanne to drive the (previous mention) car." # The relevant stem for passive 1 is the passive imperative form 'tere' # since the imperative is 'tere-o''be.squeezed-by.you'. The final clitic # '-o''by.you' is dropped and subsequently the initial vowel sound 'i' of # the suffix 'ina' drops as well; so does the final 'a' just preceding the # subsequent vowel 'i' of D.sg. # Note the 'no...ina' passive 1 form of the verb 'no-tere-na' with the # stem 'tere'. # What used to be an accusative phrase is now a subject (i Jeanne). Nanery an'ilay fantsika tamin'ity fitaovana i Jaona. # N- an- (t)ery an'ilay fantsika t-amin' ity fitaovana i Jaona. # past-prf-root.tery acc DX.sg nail perf-with DX.sg tool D.sg John # "John squeezed the nail with the (previous mention) tool." # Note the root 'tery' for the active voice verb 'n-an-ery'. # Note the argument instrument-oblique 't-amin'ity fitaovana'. Naneren'i Jaona an'ilay fantsika ity fitaovana. # N-an- (t)ere(o)-an(a) i Jaona an' ilay fantsika ity fitaovana. # past-pass-stem.tere-pass.by D.sg John acc DX.sg nail DX.sg tool # "The tool was used by John to squeeze the nail." # The relevant stem for passive 2 is the passive imperative form 'anere-o' # 'be.squeezed-by.you'. The final clitic '-o''by.you' of the imperative is # dropped and the passive suffix 'ana' is added, but its initial vowel # sound 'a' drops; so does its final 'a' just preceding the subsequent # vowel 'i' of D.sg. # Note the 'an...ana' passive 2 form of the verb 'n-an-erena' with the # stem 'tere'. # What used to be an intrument-oblique is now a subject "ity fitaovana' # with its PP dropped. Anereo kely ity! # an- (t)ere- o kely ity. # pass-stem.tere-pass.by.you a little this # Lit "Let this be tighened somewhat". # Note the passive 2 passive and the PARTITIVE meaning conveyed via # 'somewhat'. # active = n-i-angavy; passive 1 = n-i-angavi-(a)na; # passive 2 = n-i-angavi-(a)na; Niangavy an'i Jeanne handeha i Marie. # N- i- angavy an' i Jeanne h-andeha i Marie. # past-prf-root.angavy acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go D.sg Marie # "Marie asked Jeanne to go." # Note the accusative phrase 'an'i Jeanne'. Niangavin'i Marie handeha i Jeanne. # N- i -angavi- in(a) i Marie h-andeha i Jeanne. # past-prf-stem.angavi-pass.by D.sg Marie fut-go D.sg Jeanne. # Lit. "Was requested by Marie Jeanne will go.""Marie asked Jeanne to go." # The passive imperative form for the verb 'n-i-angavy' is 'i-angavi-o' # prf-be.requested.by.you'. The final clitic '-o''by.you' drops before the # passive suffix 'ina' is added: then the two subsequent 'i's merge. # The final 'a' in front of the vowel D.sg'i' of 'i Marie' is also # dropped. Note the suffix '...ina' form for passive 1. # What used to be an accusative 'an'i Jeanne' is now a subject. Niangavy an'i Jeanne handeha tamim-pahatsorana i Marie. # N- i- angavy an' i Jeanne h-andeha # past-prf-root.angavy acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go # t-amim-pahatsorana i Marie. # perf-with-simplicity D.sg Marie # "Marie asked Jeanne to go in a straaightfoward manner." # Note the oblique phrase ' t-amim-pahatsorana' after the second verb. T-amim-pahatsorana no niangavian' i Marie an'i Jeanne handeha. # T- amim-pahatsorana no n- i- angavi- an(a) i Marie # perf-with-simplicity focus past-prf-stem.angavi-pass.by D.sg Marie # an' i Jeanne h-andeha. # acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go # "It was in a straightfoward manner that Marie was requesting that Jeanne go." # Note the fronted PP-argument 't-amim-pahatsorana''perf-with simplicity." # Note the expected suffix '...ana' form for passive 2. # What used to be a manner-oblique is now a fronted subject # t-amim-pahatsorana' with the PP maintained. # active = n-an-gataka; passive 1 = n-angatah-ina; # passive 2 = n-angatah-ana; Nangataka an'i Jeanne handeha i Marie. # N-angataka an' i Jeanne h-andeha i Marie. # past-pref.an-root.hataka acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go D.sg Marie # "Marie (kindly) requested that Jeanne go." # Note the accusative phrase 'an'i Jeanne'. Nangatahin'i Marie handeha i Jeanne. # N- an-gatah- in(a) i Marie h-andeha i Jeanne. # past-prf-stem.angatah-pass.by D.sg Marie fut-go D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was (kindly) requested by Marie to go." # N-an-gatah-ina' comes from the root 'hataka'; the initial glottal 'h' # becomes a 'g'; the 'k' weakens into 'h' in the passive 1 imperative form #'an-gatah-o''prf-root.be.requested-by.you'. # The passive 1 imperative form for 'n-angataka' being 'angatah-o' # the clitic 'o''by.you' is dropped and is replaced by the passive # suffix 'ina' for passive 1. # Note the 'an...ina' form for passive 1. # What used to be an accusative phrase has now become a subject (i Jeanne). Nangataka an'i Jeanne handeha tamim-pahatsorana i Marie. # N-angataka an' i Jeanne h-andeha # past-pref.an-root.hataka acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go # t-amim-pahatsorana i Marie. # perf-with-simplicity D.sg Marie # "Marie (kindly) requested that Jeanne go in a straightforward manner." # Note the manner-oblique phrase 'tamim-pahatsorana'. T-amim-pahatsorana no nangatahan' i Marie an'i Jeanne handeha. # T- amim-pahatsorana no n- an-gatah- an(a) i Marie # perf-with-simplicity focus past-prf-stem.angatah-pass.by D.sg Marie # an' i Jeanne h-andeha. # acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go # "It was in a straightforward manner that Marie was (kindly) requesting # that Jeanne go." # Note the fronted PP-argument 't-amim-pahatsorana''perf-with simplicity." # Also note the verb in the form of passive 2. Presumably the prefix 'an' # in the passive stem counts as the first occurrence of 'an' in the # discontinuous form 'an...ana' with the suffix 'ana' for passive 2. # Note that what used to be a manner-oblique is now a fronted subject # of the sentence. # active = n-an-iraka; passive 1 = n-irah-ina; # passive 2 = n-an-irah-ana; Naniraka an'ilay vehivavy hividy mofo ianareo. # N-an-iraka an' ilay vehivavy h-ividy mofo ianareo. # past-prf-root.iraka acc DX.sg voman/women fut-buy bread you.pl # "You sent the (previous mention) woman to buy bread." # Note the accusative phrase 'an'ilay vehivavy'. Nirahinareo hividy mofo ilay vehivavy. # N- irah(o)- i- nareo h-ividy mofo ilay vehivavy. # past-pass.stem.irah-pass-by.you fut-buy bread DX-sg woman # "The (previous mention) woman was sent by you to buy bread." # The passive imperative stem form for 'n-irah-ana-nareo' is 'irah-o' # from which the clitic 'o' 'by.you' is dropped, replaced by the # suffix 'ina --represented here by 'i'. # Note that this is passive form 1 with presumably the initial 'i' # of the stem 'irah' re-analysed as a substitute prefix. Thus, # we have a form of passive 1 suffix '...ina'. # What used to be an accusative is now a subject (ilay vehivavy). Naniraka an'ilay vehivavy hividy mofo ianareo omaly. # N-an-iraka an' ilay vehivavy h-ividy mofo # past-prf-root.iraka acc DX.sg voman/women fut-buy bread # ianareo omaly. # you.pl yesterday # "You sent the (previous mention) woman to buy bread yesterday." # Note the time-oblique phrase 'omaly'. Omaly no nanirahanareo ilay vehivavy hividy mofo. # Omaly no n- an- irah- a(na)-nareo ilay vehivavy # Yesterday focus past-pass-pass.stem.irah-pass- by.you DX.sg woman # h-ividy mofo. # fut-buy bread. # "It was yesterday the (previous mention) woman was being sent by you to # buy bread." # Note the form 'an....ana' characteristic of passive 2. # What used to be an oblique is now a fronted subject (object). # The adjunct 'omaly'yesterday' has been incorporated and subsequently # 'promoted' to subject, with the verb in the Passive2 form. # root: anatra 'advice' # verbs: mananatra, mianatra, mampianatra # m-an-anatra 'to advise'; passive 1 = anaro; passive 2 = ananaro # m-i-anatra 'to study'; passive 1 = ianaro; passive 2 = ianaro # m-amp-i-anatra 'to teach'; passive 1 = ampianaro; passive 2 = ampianaro. Nananatra an'i Jeanne i Paoly. # N-an-anatra an'i Jeanne i Paoly. # past-prf-root.anatra acc D.sg Jeanne D.sg Paul #"Paul advised Jeanne". Nanarin'i Paoly i Jeanne. # N- anar(o)- in(a) i Paoly i Jeanne. # past-stem.anar-pass.by D.sg Paoly D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was advised by Paul". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nananatra''past-advise' is 'anar-o' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is replaced by the suffix 'ina'. # Ungrammatical Nanaran'i Paoly i Jeanne.(0! 0 0 0) # N- anar(o)- an(a) i Paoly i Jeanne. # past-stem.anar-pass.by D.sg Paoly D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was advised by Paul". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nananatra''past-advise' is 'anar-o' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is replaced by the suffix 'ana'. Nananatra an'i Jeanne momba io i Paoly. # N-an-anatra an' i Jeanne momba io i Paoly. # past-prf.an-root.anatra acc D.sg Jeanne about this D.sg Paul # "Paul advised Jeanne about this". Momba io no nananaran'i Paoly an'i Jeanne. # Momba io no n- an- ananar(o)- an(a) i Paoly an' i Jeanne. # about this focus past-pass-stem.ananar-pass.by D.sg Paul acc D.sg Jeanne # "It was about this that Jeanne was being advised by Paul". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nananatra''past-advise' is 'ananar-o' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the suffix 'ana' # Ungrammatical Momba io no nananarin'i Paoly an'i Jeanne.(0! 0 0 0) # Momba io no n- an- ananar(o)-in(a) i Paoly an' i Jeanne. # about this focus past-pass-stem.ananar-pass.by D.sg Paul acc D.sg Jeanne # "It was about this that Jeanne was being advised by Paul". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nananatra''past-advise' is 'ananar-o' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the unexpected # suffix 'ina' Nianatra an' ilay lesona i Soa. # N- i- anatra an' ilay lesona i Soa. # Past-prf-root.study acc DX.sg lesson(s) D.sg Soa # ‘Soa studied the (previous mention) lesson.' # Note the accusative phrase 'an'ilay lesona'. Nianaran'i Soa ilay lesona. # N- i- anar(o)- an(a) i Soa ilay lesona. # past-stem.ianar-pass D.sg Soa DX.sg lesson # "The (previous mention) lesson was learned by Soa." # The passive imperative for 'nianatra' is 'i-anar-o' with # the clitic pronoun 'o''by.you' as a suffix. This suffix # is dropped, replaced exceptionally with 'ana' of the discontinuous form # 'i...ana' for passive 1: One needs to study the subsystem of which # this form is part to understand this apparent deviation. # What used to be an accusative is now a subject (ilay lesona). Nianatra tao an-davarangana i Soa. # N-i-anatra t-ao an-davarangana i Soa. # Past-prf.i-root.anatra perf-there on-balcony D.sg Soa # ‘Soa studies on the balcony.' # Note the location-oblique 'tao an-davarangana'. Tao an-davarangana no nianaran'i Soa. # T-ao an-davarangana no n- i- anar(o)- an(a) i Soa # perf-there on-balcony focus past.pass-stem.ianar-pass.by D.sg Soa # "It was on the balcony Soa was studying." # Note the passive voice on the verb 'ianaran(a)' with the fronted PP # argument 'ao an-davarangana'. # Note the expected passive 2 form 'i....ana'. # What used to be a location-oblique is now a fronted subject with the PP # retained. # Ungrammatical Tao an-davarangana no nianarin'i Soa.(0! 0 0 0) # T-ao an-davarangana no n- i- anar(o)- in(a) i Soa # perf-there on-balcony focus past.pass-stem.ianar-pass.by D.sg Soa # "It was on the balcony Soa was studying." # Note the passive voice on the verb 'ianaran(a)' with the fronted PP # argument 'ao an-davarangana'. # Note the unexpected passive 2 form 'i....ina'. # What used to be a location-oblique is now a fronted subject with the PP # retained. Nianatra i Jeanne. # N-i-anatra i Jeanne. # past-prf.i-root.anatra D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was studying". Nampianatra an'i Jeanne i Paoly. # N-amp-i-anatra an' i Jeanne i Paoly. # past-caus-study acc D.sg Jeanne D.sg Paul # "Paul taught Jeanne". Nampianarin'i Paoly i Jeanne. # N- amp- i- anar(o)- in(a) i Paoly i Jeanne. # past-caus-stem.ianar-pass.by D.sg Paul D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was (being) taught by Paul". # The passive 1 imperative for 'n-amp-i-anatra''past-study' is 'ampianar-o' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is replaced by the expected suffix # 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'i...ina'. # Ungrammatical Nampianaran'i Paoly i Jeanne.(0! 0 0 0) # N- amp- i- anar(o)- an(a) i Paoly i Jeanne. # past-caus-stem.ianar-pass.by D.sg Paul D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was (being) taught by Paul". # The passive 1 imperative for 'n-amp-i-anatra''past-teach' is 'ampianar-o' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is replaced by the unexpected # suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'i...ana'. Nampianatra an'i Jeanne farany i Paoly omaly. # N-amp-i-anatra an' i Jeanne farany i Paoly omaly. # past-caus-pref.i-root.anatra acc D.sg Jeanne last D.sg Paul yesterday # "Paul last taught Jeanne yesterday". Omaly no nampianaran'i Paoly an'i Jeanne farany. # Omaly no n-amp-i-anar(o)-an(a) i Paoly an'i Jeanne # yesterday focus past-caus-stem.ianar-pass.by D.sg Paoly acc D.sg Jeanne # farany. # last # "It was yesterday Jeanne was being last taught by Paul". # The passive 2 imperative for 'n-amp-i-anatra''past-teach' is #'ampianar-o' from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is replaced by the # expected suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'i...ana'. # The adjunct 'omaly'yesterday' has been incorporated and subsequently # 'promoted' to subject, with the verb in the Passive2 form. # Ungrammatical Omaly no nampianarin'i Paoly an'i Jeanne farany.(0! 0 0 0) # Omaly no n-amp-i-anar(o)-in(a) i Paoly an'i Jeanne # yesterday focus past-caus-stem.ianar-pass.by D.sg Paoly acc D.sg Jeanne # farany. # last # "It was yesterday Jeanne was last taught by Paul". # The passive 2 imperative for 'n-amp-i-anatra''past-teach' is #'ampianar-o' from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is replaced by the # unexpected suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'i...ina'. # active = m-an-(l>d)efa > m-an-defa (root: lefa); passive 1 = n-a-lefa; # passive 2 = n-an-defa-s-a(na) past-pref.an-lefa-ep.s-suffix.ana; Nandefa an'ilay boky i Jeanne. # N-an-(l>d)efa an' ilay boky i Jeanne. # past-prf-root.lefa acc DX.sg book(s) D.sg Jeanne # 'Jeanne sent the (previous mention) book'. # Note the accusative phrase 'an'ilay boky'. Nandefa boky i Jeanne. # N-an-(l>d)efa boky i Jeanne. # past-prf-root.lefa book(s) D.sg Jeanne # 'Jeanne sent books'. Nandefa boky vitsivitsy i Jeanne. # N-an-(l>d)efa boky vitsivitsy i Jeanne. # past-prf-root.lefa book(s) a few D.sg Jeanne # 'Jeanne sent a few books'. Ny boky no nandefa i Jeanne. # Ny boky no n-an-(l>d)efa i Jeanne. # past-prf-root.lefa book(s) D.sg Jeanne # 'As far as books are concerned, Jeanne sent some'. # Note the preposed non-specific object 'boky''books' while at # the same time the verb is in the active voice, yielding a PARTITIVE # reading translated as 'some' above. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny boky no nandefa vitsivitsy i Jeanne. # Ny boky no n-an-(l>d)efa vitsivitsy i Jeanne. # past-prf-root.lefa book(s) a few D.sg Jeanne # 'As far as books are concerned, Jeanne sent a few'. # Note the preposed non-specific object 'boky''books' while at # the same time the verb is in the active voice, with a PARTITIVE # reading reinforced by the presence of the quantifier 'vitsivitsy''a few'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Nalefan'i Jeanne ilay boky. # N- a- lefa- n(a) i Jeanne ilay boky. # past-pass-root.lefa-ep.na D.sg Jeanne DX.sg book(s) #'The (previous mention) book was sent by Jeanne.' # The root is 'lefa' where the initial consonant becomes a 'd'. # Note the exceptional looking passive 1 form 'a...ana' arising from # elision of the final vowel 'a' of'na' on the form 'alefa': # in reality, as was the case with the form 'hitana', na is epenthetic # and does not trigger stress shift, as would have to be the case with # suffixation with a putative passive affix 'ina'. # What used to be an accusative is now a subject (ilay boky)'. Nandefa an'ilay boky tamin'ny paositra i Jeanne. # N-an-(l>d)efa an' ilay boky t-amin' ny paositra # past-prf-root.lefa acc DX.sg book(s) perf-via D.unspec post # i Jeanne. # D.sg Jeanne # 'Jeanne sent the (previous mention) book by post'. # Note the oblique constituent 'tamin'ny paositra'. Tamin'ny pasitra no nandefasan'i Jeanne ilay boky. # T-amin' ny pasitra no n-an-(l>d)efa-s(o)-an(a) i Jeanne # perf-via D.unspec post focus past-stem.andefas-s-pass D.sg J # ilay boky. # DX.sg book(s) # 'It was via the post office Jeanne was sending the (p.m.) book." # The passive 2 imperative form for 'nandefa' is 'an-defa-s-o' with an # epenthetic 's' followed by the clitic pronoun 'o''by.you'. # The relevant form is passive 2 with the discontinuous 'an...an(a)'. # What used to be an oblique is now a fronted subject with the PP retained. Ny pasitra no nandefasan'i Jeanne ilay boky. # Ny pasitra no n-an-(l>d)efa-s(o)-an(a) i Jeanne # D.unspec post focus past-stem.andefas-pass D.sg J # ilay boky. # DX.sg book(s) # 'It was via the post office Jeanne was sending the (p.m.) book." # The passive 2 imperative form for 'nandefa' is 'an-defa-s-o' with an # epenthetic 's' followed by the clitic pronoun 'o''by.you'. # The relevant form is passive 2 with the discontinuous 'an...an(a)'. # What used to be an oblique is now a fronted subject with the PP left out # and the verb in the expected Passive2 form.. # Ungrammatical Tamin'ny paositra no nandefa ilay boky i Jeanne.(0! 0 0 0) # T- amin'ny paositra no n-an-d(d)efa-s(o)-an(a) i Jeanne boky i Jaona. # past-stem.andefas-pass D.sg J books D.sg John # 'Some of the books were being sent by Jeanne to John." # The passive 2 imperative form for 'nandefa' is 'an-defa-s-o' with an # epenthetic 's' followed by the clitic pronoun 'o''by.you'. # The relevant form is passive 2 with the discontinuous 'an...an(a)'. # What used to be an oblique is now a fronted subject with the PP retained. # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'boky''books' # which voids the correlation 'an...an(a) of Passive 2 and the expected # PARTITIVE reading on the grammatical subject. # active = n-an-(t)osika > n-an-osika; passive 1 = n-a-tosika # passive 2 = n-an-(t)oseh-ana > n-an-oseh-ana; Nanosika an'ilay fiara i Paoly. # N- an-(t)osika an' ilay fiara i Paoly. # past-prf-root.tosika acc DX.sg car(s) D.sg Paul # "Paul was pushing the (previous mention) car." # Note the accusative phrase 'an'ilay fiara'. Nanosika fiara i Paoly. # N- an-(t)osika fiara i Paoly. # past-prf-root.tosika car(s) D.sg Paul # "Paul was pushing cars." Nanosika fiara maromaro i Paoly. # N- an-(t)osika fiara maromaro i Paoly. # past-prf-root.tosika car(s) several D.sg Paul # "Paul was pushing several cars." Ny fiara no nanosika i Paoly. # Ny fiara no n- an-(t)osika i Paoly. # Topic cars focus past-prf-root.tosika D.sg Paul # "As far as cars are concerned, Paul was pushing some." # Note the preposed non-specific object 'fiara''cars' while the # verb is in the active voice, yielding a PARTITIVE reading. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny fiara no nanosika maromaro i Paoly. # Ny fiara no n- an-(t)osika maromaro i Paoly. # Topic cars focus past-prf-root.tosika several D.sg Paul # "As far as cars are concerned, Paul was pushing several." # Note the preposed non-specific object 'fiara''cars' while the # verb is in the active voice, yielding a PARTITIVE reading especially # with the quantifier 'maromaro''several'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Natosik'i Paoly ilay fiara. # N- a- tosik(a) i Paoly ilay fiara. # past-a.pass-root.tosika D.sg Paul DX.sg car #"The (previous mention) car was pushed by Paul.' # Note that the verb 'nanosika' ends with a 'ka' syllable, which along # with verbs ending in 'tra' and 'na' is subject to a special rule: # The final vowel of such syllables drops in front of the initial # vowel of the subsequent entity. # What used to be an accusative is now a subject (ilay fiara).' Nanosika an'ilay fiara tamin'ilay fitaovana i Paoly. # N- an-(t)osika an' ilay fiara t-amin' ilay fitaovana i Paoly. # past-prf-root.tosika acc DX.sg car(s) perf-with DX.sg tool D.sg Paul # "Paul was pushing the (previous mention) car with the (p.m.) tool." # Note the instrument-oblique 'tamin'ilay fitaovana'. Nanosika fiara tamin'ilay fitaovana i Paoly. # N- an-(t)osika fiara t-amin' ilay fitaovana i Paoly. # past-prf-root.tosika car(s) perf-with DX.sg tool D.sg Paul # "Paul was pushing cars with the (p.m.) tool." # Note the presence of the non-specific object 'fiara''cars', very # typical of Malagasy. Tamin'ilay fitaovana no nanosehan'i Paoly an'ilay fiara. # T-amin' ilay fitaovana no n-an-(t)oseh(o)-an(a) i Paoly # perf-with DX.sg tool focus past-stem.anoseh-pass.by D.sg Paul # an' ilay fiara. # acc DX.sg car(s) # "It was with the (p.m.) tool that Paul was pushing the (p.m.) car." # The passive 2 imperative is 'anoseho' from which the suffix 'o' #'by.you' is dropped, replaced by the suffix 2 'ana'. # This is passive 2 with the discontinuous form 'an...an(a)'. # What used to be an instrument-oblique is now a fronted subject with # the PP retained and the verb in the Passive2 form. Ilay fitaovana no nanosehan'i Paoly an'ilay fiara. # Ilay fitaovana no n-an-(t)oseh(o)-an(a) i Paoly # DX.sg tool focus past-stem.anoseh-pass.by D.sg Paul # an' ilay fiara. # acc DX.sg car(s) # "It was with the (p.m.) tool that Paul was pushing the (p.m.) car." # The passive 2 imperative is 'anoseho' from which the suffix 'o' #'by.you' is dropped, replaced by the suffix 2 'ana'. # This is passive 2 with the discontinuous form 'an...an(a)'. # What used to be an instrument-oblique is now a fronted subject with # the preposition 'tamin(a)' left out, but as expected the verb is # already in the Passive2 form. Ungrammatical Tamin'ilay fitaovana no nanosika an'ilay fiara i Paoly.(0! 0 0 0) # T- amin'ilay fitaovana no n-an-(t)osika # perf-with DX.sg tool focus past-prf-root.tosika # an' ilay fiara i Paoly. # acc DX.sg car D.sg Paul # "It was with the tool that Paul pushed the (p.m.) car". # Note that the verb is in the active voice and that the fronted PP # t-amin'ilay fitaovana''perf-with DX.sg tool' is an argument of the verb. # active = n-i-vidy; passive 1 = no-vid(i)-i(na); # passive 2 = n-i-vidi-an-ana 'past-pref.i-root.vidi-ep.an-suffix.ana; Nividy an'ilay mofo i Soa. # N-i-vidy an' ilay mofo i Soa. # past-prf.i-root.vidi acc DX.sg bread D.sg Soa # "Soa bought the (previous mention) bread." # Note the accusative phrase 'an'ilay mofo'. Nividy mofo i Soa. # N-i-vidy mofo i Soa. # past-prf.i-root.vidi bread D.sg Soa # "Soa bought some bread." # Note the non-specific object 'mofo''some bread'. Nividy mofo be dia be i Soa. # N-i-vidy mofo be dia be i Soa. # past-prf.i-root.vidi bread several D.sg Soa # "Soa bought a lot of bread." # Note the non-specific object 'mofo''some bread'. Ny mofo no nividy i Soa. # Ny mofo no n-i-vidy i Soa. # Topic bread focus past-prf.i-root.vidi D.sg Soa # "As far as bread is concerned, Soa bought some." # Note the preposed non-specific object 'mofo''some bread' while # the verb is in the active voice. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny mofo no nividy be dia be i Soa. # Ny mofo no n-i-vidy be dia be i Soa. # Topic bread focus past-prf.i-root.vidi several D.sg Soa # "As far as bread is concerned, Soa bought several." # Note the preposed non-specific object 'mofo''some bread' while # the verb is in the active voice especially with the complex quantifier 'be dia be''a lot'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Novidin'i Soa ilay mofo. # No- vid(i)-in(a) i Soa ilay mofo. # past.pass-stem.vidi-pass.by D.sg Soa DX.sg bread # "The (previous mention) bread was bought by Soa'. # The relevant form of passive 1 is 'no...ina'. # What used to be an accusative is now a subject (ilay mofo). # Note that if instead of 'ilay mofo''the previous mention bread' # we had 'ny mofo''Det bread', the meaning would be 'ALL the # bread was bought by Soa.' Nividy mofo ho an'ilay zazakely i Soa. # N-i-vidy mofo ho an' ilay zazakely i Soa. # past-prf.i-root.vidi bread PP acc DX.sg child D.sg Soa # "Soa bought (some) bread for the (p.m.) child." # Note the beneficiary-oblique 'ho an'ilay zazakely'. Nividianan'i Soa mofo ilay zazakely. # N- i- vidi-an(o)-an(a) i Soa mofo ilay zazakely. # past-stem.ividian-pass-by D.sg Soa bread DX.sg child # "The (previous mention) child was being bought (some) bread for by Soa." # The relevant form is passive 2 with the discontinuous 'i...ana' # since the passive 2 imperative is 'ividian(o)' from which 'o' # has been dropped and replaced with the suffix 'ana'. # What used to be a beneficiary-oblique is now a subject "ilay zazakely'. # Note the presence of the bare accusative phrase 'mofo'. # Note the crucial presence of the non-definite object 'mofo'. # See proposed analysis in Randriamasimanana (2004. Relation tête- # spécifieur in Faits de Langues. Paris, Volumes 23-24: 277-279). # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'mofo''bread' # which voids the effect of the correlation 'i...ana' of Passive2 # and the expected PARTITIVE reading on the grammatical subject. # active = n-amp-orisika; passive 1 = n-amp-orisih-in(a); # passive 2 = n-amp-orisih-a(na) Namporisika an'i Jeanne handeha i Paoly. # N- amp-orisika an' i Jeanne h-andeha i Paoly. # past-caus-orisika acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go D.sg Paul # "Paul urged Jeanne to go". Namporisihin'i Paoly handeha i Jeanne. # N- amp- orisih(o)-in(a) i Paoly h-andeha i Jeanne. # past-pass-stem.orisih-pass-by D.sg Paul fut-go D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was urged by Paul to go". # The passive 1 imperative for 'namporisika' is 'amp-orisih-o' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is dropped, replaced by # the passive 1 suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'amp... # ina'. Namporisika an'i Jeanne handeha i Paoly taloha. # N- amp-orisika an' i Jeanne h-andeha i Paoly taloha. # past-caus-root.(o)risika acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go D.sg Paul in-the-old-days # "Paul used to encourage Paul to go". Taloha no namporisihan'i Paoly an'i Jeanne handeha. # Taloha no n- amp- orisih(o)-an(a) i Paoly # in-the-old-days focus past-amp-stem.orisih-pass.by D.sg Paul # an' i Jeanne h-andeha. # acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go # Lit. "It was in the old days that Paul was encouraging Jeanne to go". # "In the old days, Paul was encouraging Jeanne to go". # The passive 2 imperative for 'namporisika' is 'amporisiho' # from which the suffix 'o''by.you' is dropped, replaced # the passive 2 suffix 'ana'. # The adjunct 'taloha''in the old days' has been incorporated and # subsequently 'promoted' to subject, with the verb in Passive2 form. Taloha no namporisika an'i Jeanne handeha i Paoly. # Taloha no n- amp- orisika an' i Jeanne h-andeha i Paoly. # in-the-old-days focus past-prf-root.orisika acc D.sg Jeanne fut-go D.sg Paul # Lit. "It was in the old days that Paul encouraged Jeanne to go". # "Paul used to encourage Jeanne to go". # Note that the verb is in the active voice. # active = n-an-(t)apaka > n-an-apaka; passive 1 = no-tapah-ina; # passive 2 = n-an-(t)apah-a(na) > n-an-apah-ana; Nanapaka an'ilay tady i Jeanne. # N-an-(t)apaka an' ilay tady i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.tapaka acc D.sg string D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut the (previous mention) string". Nanapaka tady i Jeanne. # N-an-(t)apaka tady i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.tapaka string D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut some string". Nanapaka tady maromaro i Jeanne. # N-an-(t)apaka tady maromaro i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.tapaka string several D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut several strings". Ny tady no nanapaka i Jeanne. # Ny tady no n-an-(t)apaka i Jeanne. # Topic string focus past-prf.an-root.tapaka D.sg Jeanne # "As far as strings are concerned, Jeanne cut some". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'tady''strings' while # the verb is in the active voice with the expected PARTITIVE # reading. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny tady no nanapaka maromaro i Jeanne. # Ny tady no n-an-(t)apaka maromaro i Jeanne. # Topic string focus past-prf.an-root.tapaka several D.sg Jeanne # "As far as strings are concerned, Jeanne cut several". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'tady''strings' while # the verb is in the active voice with the expected PARTITIVE # reading especially with the quantifier 'maromaro''several'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Notapahin'i Jeanne ilay tady. # No- tapah(o)-in(a) i Jeanne ilay tady. # past.pass-stem.tapah-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg string # "The whole (previous mention) string was cut up by Jeanne". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nanapaka' is 'tapaho' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced # by the passive 1 suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form # 'no...ina'. # Note the correlation 'no...ina' and the non-PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Nanapahan'i Jeanne ny tady. # N-an-(t)apah(o)-an(a) i Jeanne ny tady. # past-stem.anapah-pass.by D.sg Jeanne Det string # an'ilay tady. # acc DX.sg string # "A portion of the string was being cut by Jeanne". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nanapaka' is 'anapaho' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced # by the passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form # 'an...ana'. # Note the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. # Note the crucial absence of a non-specific object. Nanapaka an'ilay tady tamin'ny antsy i Jeanne. # N-an-(t)apaka an'ilay tady t-amin' ny antsy i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.tapaka acc D.sg string perf-with Det.unspec knife D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut the (previous mention) string with the (p.m.) knife". Tamin'ny antsy no nanapahan'i Jeanne an'ilay tady. # T-amin' ny antsy no n-an-(t)apah(o)-an(a) i Jeanne # perf-with det.unspec knife focus past-stem.anapah-pass.by D.sg Jeanne # an'ilay tady. # acc DX.sg string # "It is with the (p.m.) knife that Jeanne was cutting the string". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nanapaka' is 'anapaho' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced # by the passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form # 'an...ana'. # Note that the preposition 'tamin(a)' is retained even though the verb # is already in the passive2 form, as expected. Ny antsy no nanapahan'i Jeanne an'ilay tady. # Ny antsy no n-an-(t)apah(o)-an(a) i Jeanne # Det.unspec knife focus past-stem.anapah-pass.by D.sg Jeanne # an'ilay tady. # acc DX.sg string # "It is with the (p.m.) knife that Jeanne was cutting the string". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nanapaka' is 'anapaho' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced # by the passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form # 'an...ana'. # Note that the preposition 'tamin(a)' has been left out, but # as expected, the verb already has the Passive2 form. Nanapahan'i Jeanne tady ny antsy. # N-an-(t)apah(o)-an(a) i Jeanne tady ny antsy. # past-stem.anapah-pass.by D.sg Jeanne string Det knife # "The (p.m.) knife was being used by Jeanne to cut up the string". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nanapaka' is 'anapaho' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced # by the passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form # 'an...ana'. # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'tady''string' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. # active = n-i-tady; passive 1 = no-tadi-a(v)i(na) # passive 2 = n-i-tadi-a(v)a(na) # where (na) can be replaced by a clitic pronoun # -ko 'by.me'; -ny 'by.him/her' Nitady an'ilay mpianatra i Jeanne. # N-i-tady an' ilay mpianatra i Jeanne. # past-prf.i-root.tadi acc DX.sg student(s) D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was looking for the (p.m.) student". Nitady mpianatra i Jeanne. # N-i-tady mpianatra i Jeanne. # past-prf.i-tadi student(s) D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was looking for some students". Nitady mpianatra maromaro i Jeanne. # N-i-tady mpianatra maromaro i Jeanne. # past-prf.i-tadi student(s) several D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was looking for several students". Ny mpianatra no nitady i Jeanne. # Ny mpianatra no n-i-tady i Jeanne. # Topic students focus past-prf.i-root.tadi D.sg Jeanne # "As far as students are concerned, Jeanne was looking for some". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'mpianatra''students' while the verb # is in the active voice, with the expected PARTITIVE reading. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny mpianatra no nitady maromaro i Jeanne. # Ny mpianatra no n-i-tady maromaro i Jeanne. # Topic students focus past-prf.i-root.tadi several D.sg Jeanne # "As far as students are concerned, Jeanne was looking for several". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'mpianatra''students' while the verb # is in the active voice, with the expected PARTITIVE reading and the quantifier # 'maromaro''several'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Notadiavin'i Jeanne ilay mpianatra. # No- tadia-v(o)-in(a) i Jeanne ilay mpianatra. # past.pass-stem.tadiav-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg student(s) # "The (p.m.) student was sought by Jeanne". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nitady' is 'tadiavo' from which # the suffix 'o''by.you' is dropped, replaced by the passive 1 suffix #'ina' of the discontinuous form 'no...ina'. Nitady an'ilay mpianatra i Jeanne omaly. # N-i-tady an' ilay mpianatra i Jeanne omaly. # past-prf.i-root.tadi acc DX.sg student(s) D.sg Jeanne yesterday # "Jeanne was looking for the (p.m.) student yesterday". Omaly no nitadiavan'i Jeanne an'ilay mpianatra. # Omaly no n-i-tadi-av(o)-an(a) i Jeanne an' ilay mpianatra. # yesterday focus past-stem.itadiav-pass.by D.sg Jeanne acc DX.sg student # "It was yesterday that Jeanne was looking for the (p.m.) student". # The passive 2 imperative form for 'nitady' is 'itadiavo' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced # by the passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form # 'i...ana'. # The adjunct 'omaly''yesterday' has been incorporated and subsequently # it has been 'promoted' to subject with the verb in Passive2 form. # active = n-iditra; passive 2 = n-idir-ana; # passive 1 = a-iditra; # passive 1 = n-amp-idir-ina; passive 2 = n-amp-idir-ana; Niditra tao an-dakilasy ny mpianatra. # N-iditra t-ao an-(l>d)akilasy ny mpianatra. # past-root.iditra perf-into in-class Det.unspec student(s) # "The (p.m.) students went into a classroom". Niditra tao amin-dry Jeanne ny mpianatra. # N-iditra t-ao ami-n-dry Jeanne ny mpianatra. # past-root.iditra perf-into at-of D.pl Jeanne Det.unspec student(s) # "The (p.m.) students went into Jeanne & associates's home". Nidiran'ny mpianatra ny tao amin-dry Jeanne. # N-idir(o)-an(a) ny mpianatra ny t-ao # past-stem.idir-pass.by Det.unspec student(s) Det.unspec perf-there # amin- dry Jeanne. # at-of D.pl Jeanne # "Jeanne & associates'home was invaded by the (p.m.) students". # The passive imperative for 'niditra' is 'idiro' from which # the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced by the # passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'i...ana'. Nampiditra ny mpianatra i Jeanne. # N- amp- iditra ny mpianatra i Jeanne. # past-caus-root.iditra Det.unspec student(s) D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne let the students come in". Nampidirin'i Jeanne ny mpianatra. # N- amp- idir(o)- in(a) i Jeanne ny mpianatra. # past-caus-stem.idir-pass.by D.sg Jeanne Det.unspec student(s) # "The students were allowed in by Jeanne". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nampiditra' is 'ampidiro' from which # the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced by the expected # passive 1 suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'amp...ina'. # Note the DIRECTIVE causative 'amp(a)'. Nampiditra an'ilay saka i Jeanne. # N- amp- iditra an'ilay saka i Jeanne. # past-caus-root.iditra acc DX.sg cat D.sg Jeanne #"Jeanne allowed the (p.m.) cat in". Nampidirin'i Jeanne ilay saka. # N- amp- idir(o)- in(a) i Jeanne ilay saka. # past-caus-stem.idir-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg cat # Either "The (p.m.) cat was allowed in by Jeanne" # or "The (p.m.) cat was brought in by Jeanne". Naiditr'i Jeanne ilay saka. # N- a- iditr(a) i Jeanne ilay saka. # past-A.pass-root.iditra-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg cat # "The (p.m.) cat was brought in by Jeanne". # The verbal stem does NOT come from the passive imperative for 'aidiro'; # it comes from the active form 'iditra''enter' from which the final vowel 'a' # of 'tra' disappears in front of D.sg 'i'. In addition, the causative prefix # 'amp(a)' has been replaced by the passive prefix 'a'. Nampiditra ny mpianatra i Jeanne tamin'ny roa ora. # N- amp- iditra ny mpianatra i Jeanne # past-caus-root.iditra Det.unspec student(s) D.sg Jeanne # t- amin'ny roa ora. # perf-at Det.unspec two o'clock # "Jeanne let the students come in at two o'clock". Tamin'ny roa ora no nampidiran'i Jeanne ny mpianatra. # T-amin' ny roa ora no n- amp- idir(o)-an(a) i Jeanne # perf-at Det.unspec two o'clock focus past-caus-stem.idir-pass.by D.sg Jeanne # ny mpianatra. # Det.unspec students # "It was at 2 o'clock that the students were being let in by Jeanne". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nampiditra' is 'ampidiro' from which # the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced by the passive 2 # suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'amp...ana'. Nampidirin'i Jeanne ny voakazo. # N- amp- idir(o)- in(a) i Jeanne ny voakazo. # past-caus-stem.idir-pass.by D.sg Jeanne Det.unspec fruits # "The (p.m.) fruits were brought in by Jeanne". # Note the MANIPULATIVE causative 'amp(a)'. Aoka hampidirina ny voakazo. # Aoka h- amp- idir(o)- ina ny voakazo. # let fut-caus-stem.idir-pass.ina Det.unspec fruits # "Let all the (p.m.) fruits be brought in". # Note the passive 1 suffix 'ina'. Nampidiran'i Jeanne ny voakazo. # N- amp- idir(o)- an(a) i Jeanne ny voakazo. # past-caus-stem.idir-pass.ana D.sg Jeanne Det.unspec fruits # "Some of the (p.m.) fruits were brought in by Jeanne". # Note the MANIPULATIVE causative 'amp(a)'. Aoka hampidirana ny voakazo. # Aoka h- amp- idir(o)- an(a) ny voakazo. # Let fut-caus-stem.idir-pass.ana Det.unspec fruits # "Let some of the (p.m.) fruits be brought in". # Note the passive 2 suffix 'ana'. # active = n-an-didy; passive 1 = no-didi-ana; # passive 2 = n-an-didi-ana # where final na can be replaced by a clitic pronoun # -ko 'by.me'; -ny 'by.him/her' Nandidy an'ilay mofo i Jeanne. # N-an-didy an'ilay mofo i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.didi acc DX.sg bread D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut the (previous mention) bread". Nandidy mofo i Jeanne. # N-an-didy mofo i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.didi bread D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut some bread". Nandidy mofo be dia be i Jeanne. # N-an-didy mofo be dia be i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.didi bread several D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut a lot of bread". # Note the complex quantifier 'be dia be''several'. Ny mofo no nandidy i Jeanne. # Ny mofo no n-an-didy i Jeanne. # Topic bread focus past-prf.an-root.didi D.sg Jeanne # "As far as bread is concerned, Jeanne cut some". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'mofo''bread' while # the verb is in the active voice. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny mofo no nandidy be dia be i Jeanne. # Ny mofo no n-an-didy be dia be i Jeanne. # Topic bread focus past-prf.an-root.didi several D.sg Jeanne # "As far as bread is concerned, Jeanne cut several". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'mofo''bread' while # the verb is in the active voice alongside the complex # quantifier 'be dia be''several'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Nandidy tamin'ilay mofo i Jeanne. # N-an-didy t-amin' ilay mofo i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.didi perf-amin(a) DX.sg bread D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut a portion of the (previous mention) bread". # Note the active voice verb and the presence of the PP # 't-amin'ilay mofo''perf-from the bread'. Nodidin'i Jeanne ilay mofo. # No-did(i.o)-in(a) i Jeanne ilay mofo. # past.pass-stem.didi-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg bread # "The whole (previous mention) bread was cut up by Jeanne". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nandidy' is 'didio' from which # the suffix 'o''by.you' has been dropped, replaced by # the passive 1 suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form # 'no...ina'. # Note the correlation 'no...ina' and the non-PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Nandidian'i Jeanne ilay mofo. # N- an- didi-an(a) i Jeanne ilay mofo. # past-stem.andidi-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg bread # "A portion of the (p.m.) bread was being cut by Jeanne". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nandidy' is 'andidio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the # passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana' # to indicate that an Oblique argument has been 'promoted' to # grammatical subject. # Note the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Nandidy mofo tamin'ny antsy i Jeanne. # N- an-didy mofo t- amin'ny antsy i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.didi bread perf-with Det.unspec knife D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne cut bread with the (p.m.) knife". Nandidian'i Jeanne mofo ny antsy. # N- an- didi-an(a) i Jeanne mofo ny antsy. # past-stem.andidi-pass.by D.sg Jeanne bread Det.unspec knife # "The (previous mention) knive was being used by Jeanne to cut bread". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nandidy' is 'andidio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the # passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'mofo''bread' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Tamin'ny antsy no nandidian'i Jeanne mofo. # T-amin' ny antsy no n- an- didi-an(a) i Jeanne mofo. # perf-with Det knife focus past-stem.andidi-pass.by D.sg Jeanne bread Det.unspec knife # "It is with the (previous mention) knive that the bread was being cut by Jeanne". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nandidy' is 'andidio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the # passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. # Note that the preposition 'tamin(a)' is retained even though the # verb is already in the expected Passive2 form. Ny antsy no nandidian'i Jeanne mofo. # Ny antsy no n- an- didi-an(a) i Jeanne mofo. # Det knife focus past-stem.andidi-pass.by D.sg Jeanne bread Det.unspec knife # "It is with the (previous mention) knive that the bread was being cut by Jeanne". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nandidy' is 'andidio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the # passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. # Note that the preposition 'tamin(a)' has been left out, but the # verb is already in the expected Passive2 form. Ny antsy, nandidian'i Jeanne mofo. # Ny antsy, n- an- didi-an(a) i Jeanne mofo. # Det knife past-stem.andidi-pass.by D.sg Jeanne bread Det.unspec knife # "As for the (previous mention) knives (exhaustive listing reading), they were being # used by Jeanne to cut bread". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nandidy' is 'andidio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the # passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. # Note that the preposition 'tamin(a)' has been left out, but the # verb is already in the expected Passive2 form. # active = n-a(n>m)-(v)ono > n-am-ono; passive 1 = no-vono-ina, non-perfective; # voa-vono, perfective aspect; # passive 2 = n-a(n>m)-(v)ono-ana > n-am-ono-ana; Namono an'ilay akoho i Paoly. # N- a(n>m)-(v)ono an' ilay akoho i Paoly. # past-prf.an-root.vono acc DX.sg chicken D.sg Paul # "Paul killed the (p.m.) chicken". Namono akoho i Paoly. # N- a(n>m)-(v)ono akoho i Paoly. # past-prf.an-root.vono chickens D.sg Paul # "Paul killed some chickens". Namono akoho maromaro i Paoly. # N- a(n>m)-(v)ono akoho maromaro i Paoly. # past-prf.an-root.vono chickens several D.sg Paul # "Paul killed several chickens". Ny akoho no namono i Paoly. # Ny akoho no n- a(n>m)-(v)ono i Paoly. # Topic chickens focus past-prf.an-root.vono D.sg Paul # "As far as chickens are concerned, Paul killed some". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'akoho''chickens' while # the verb is in the active voice, with the expected PARTITIVE # reading. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny akoho no namono maromaro i Paoly. # Ny akoho no n- a(n>m)-(v)ono maromaro i Paoly. # Topic chickens focus past-prf.an-root.vono several D.sg Paul # "As far as chickens are concerned, Paul killed several". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'akoho''chickens' while # the verb is in the active voice, with the expected PARTITIVE # reading along with the quantifier 'maromaro''several'. # A structure very similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Vonoin'i Paoly amina fehikibo i Jaona. # ø-vono-in(a) i Paoly ø-amina fehikibo i Jaona. # pass.pres-stem.vono-ina DX.sg Paul nonperf-with belt DX.sg John # Either 'John is being (deliberately) struck by Paul with a belt' # or 'John is usually struck by Paul with a belt.' Vonoina amina fehikibo i Jaona. # ø-vono-ina ø-amina fehikibo i Jaona. # pass.pres-stem.vono-ina nonperf-with belt DX.sg John # Either 'John is being (deliberately) struck with a belt' # or 'John is usually (deliberately) struck with a belt.' Vonoin'i Paoly i Jaona. # ø-vono-in(a) i Paoly i Jaona. # pass.pres-stem.vono-ina DX.sg Paul DX.sg John # Either 'John is being (deliberately) struck by Paul' # or 'John is usually (deliberately) struck by Paul.' Vonoina. # ø- vono- ina. # pass.pres-stem.vono-ina # Literally:'Is being (deliberately) struck.' # 'Should (BY SPEAKER) be killed (THEME-Subject). Novonoin'i Paoly ilay akoho. # No- vono-in(a) i Paoly ilay akoho. # past.pass-stem.vono-pass.by D.sg Paul DX.sg chicken # "The (p.m.) chicken was (deliberately) killed by Paul". # The passive 1 imperative for 'namono' is 'vonoy' from # which the suffix 'y' is replaced by the passive 1 # suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'no...ina'. # Note the correlation 'no...ina' and the non-PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Novonoin'i Paoly ny akoho. # No- vono-in(a) i Paoly ny akoho. # past.pass-stem.vono-pass.by D.sg Paul Det chicken # "(All) the chickens were (deliberately) killed by Paul". # The passive 1 imperative for 'namono' is 'vonoy' from # which the suffix 'y' is replaced by the passive 1 # suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'no...ina'. # Note the correlation 'no...ina' and the non-PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Novonoin'i Paoly tamina fehikibo i Jaona. # No-vono-in(a) i Paoly t-amina fehikibo i Jaona. # pass.past-stem.vono-ina DX.sg Paul perf-with belt DX.sg John # 'John was (deliberately) struck by Paul with a belt.' Novonoin'i Paoly i Jaona. # No-vono-in(a) i Paoly i Jaona. # pass.past-stem.vono-ina DX.sg Paul DX.sg John # 'John was (deliberately) struck by Paul.' Hovonoin'i Paoly amina fehikibo i Jaona. # Ho-vono-in(a) i Paoly ø-amina fehikibo i Jaona. # pass.fut-stem.vono-ina DX.sg Paul non-perf-with belt DX.sg John # 'John will be (deliberately) struck by Paul with a belt.' Hovonoin'i Paoly i Jaona. # Ho-vono-in(a) i Paoly i Jaona. # pass.fut-stem.vono-ina DX.sg Paul DX.sg John # 'John will be (deliberately) struck by Paul.' Voavonon'i Paoly tamina fehikibo i Jaona. # Voa-vono-n(a) i Paoly t-amina fehikibo i Jaona. # perf-stem.vono-ep.na DX.sg Paul perf-with belt DX.sg John # 'John has been successfully struck by Paul with a belt.' Voavonon'i Paoly i Jaona. # Voa-vono-n(a) i Paoly i Jaona. # perf-stem.vono-ep.na DX.sg Paul DX.sg John # 'John has been successfully struck by Paul.' Namonoan'i Paoly ny akoho. # N - a(n>m)-(v)ono-an(a) i Paoly ny akoho. # Past-pass-stem.amono-suff.ana D.sg Paul Det chickens # "Some of the chickens were being killed by Paul". # The passive 2 imperative for 'namono' is 'amonoy' from # which the suffix 'y' is replaced by the passive 2 # suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. # Note the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. # Note the crucial absence of a non-specific object. Namonoan'i Paoly vorona ny antsy. # N-a(n>m)-(v)ono-an(a) i Paoly vorona ny antsy. # past-stem.amono-suff.ana DX.sg Paul birds Det knife # 'The knife was being used by Paul to kill (some) birds.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'vorona''birds' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Tamin'ny antsy no namonoan'i Paoly vorona. # T-amin' ny antsy no n-a(n>m)-(v)ono-an(a) i Paoly vorona. # Perf-with Det knife focus past-stem.amono-suff.ana DX.sg Paul birds # 'It is with the knife that some birds were killed by Paul.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'vorona''birds' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. # Note that the preposition 'tamin(a)' is retained even though the verb is # already in the Passive2 form. Ny antsy no namonoan'i Paoly vorona. # Ny antsy no n-a(n>m)-(v)ono-an(a) i Paoly vorona. # Det knife focus past-stem.amono-suff.ana DX.sg Paul birds # 'It is the knife which is being used by Paul to kill some birds.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'vorona''birds' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. # Note that the preposition 'tamin(a)' has been left out, but of course the verb is # already in the Passive2 form. Ny antsy, namonoan'i Paoly vorona. # Ny antsy, n-a(n>m)-(v)ono-an(a) i Paoly vorona. # Det knife past-stem.amono-suff.ana DX.sg Paul birds # 'As for the (p.m.) knife (exhaustive listing reading), it is being used by Paul to kill some birds.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'vorona''birds' Namono akoho i Paoly omaly. # N- a(n>m)-(v)ono akoho i Paoly omaly. # past-prf.an-root.vono chickens D.sg Paul yesterday # "Paul killed chickens yesterday". Omaly no namonoan'i Paoly akoho. # Omaly no n- a(n>m)-(v)ono-an(a) i Paoly akoho. # yesterday focus past-stem.amono-suff.ana D.sg Paul chickens # "It was yesterday Paul was killing chickens". # The passive 2 imperative for 'namono' is 'amonoy' from # which the suffix 'y' is replaced by the passive 2 # suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. # Note that the adjunct 'omaly'yesterday' has been incorporated # and subsequently 'promoted' to subject with the verb in Passive2. # Fronting of 'omaly' is obligatory in this structure. Teo ampamonoana vorona i Paoly no tonga i Jaona. # T-eo amp-a(n>m)-(v)ono-ana vorona i Paoly no tonga i Jaona. # past-there amp-stem.amono-suff.ana birds DX.sg Paul focus arrived DX.sg John # 'Paul was in the middle of killing (a/some) bird(s) when John arrived.' # Note the presence of the Locative PP 't-eo''past-there' and the prefix 'amp'. # active = n-an-(s)asa; passive 1 = no-sas(a)-a(na), non-perfective; # voa-sasa, perfective aspect; # passive 2 = n-an-(s)as(a)-a(na) # where initial consonant of root drops; # where final (a) of root sas(a) drops in front of another 'a'; # where final (na) can be replaced by a clitic pronoun # -ko 'by.me'; -ny 'by.him/her' Nanasa an'ilay lamba i Jeanne. # N- an-(s)asa an' ilay lamba i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.sasa acc DX.sg linen D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne washed the (p.m.) linen". Nanasa lamba i Jeanne. # N- an-(s)asa lamba i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.sasa linen D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne washed some linen". Nanasa lamba betsaka i Jeanne. # N- an-(s)asa lamba betsaka i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.sasa linen a.lot D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne washed a lot of linen". Ny lamba no nanasa i Jeanne. # Ny lamba no n- an-(s)asa i Jeanne. # Topic linen focus past-prf.an-root.sasa D.sg Jeanne # "As far as linen is concerned, Jeanne washed some". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'lamba''linen' while the # verb is in the active voice, with the expected PARTITIVE reading. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny lamba no nanasa betsaka i Jeanne. # Ny lamba no n- an-(s)asa betsaka i Jeanne. # Topic linen focus past-prf.an-root.sasa a.lot linen D.sg Jeanne # "As far as linen is concerned, Jeanne washed a lot of it". # A structure similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Nanasa lamba tamina savony i Jeanne. # N-an-(s)asa lamba t-amina savony i Jeanne. # past-pref.an-root.sasa linen perf-with soap DX.sg Jeanne # Either 'Jeanne was washing linen with (a/some) soap' # or 'Jeanne started washing linen with (a/some) soap.' Nanasa lamba i Jeanne. # N-an-(s)asa lamba i Jeanne. # past-pref.an-root.sasa linen DX.sg Jeanne # Either 'Jeanne was washing (some) linen' # or 'Jeanne started washing (some) linen.' Nanasa lamba. # N-an-(s)asa lamba. # past-pref.an-root.sasa linen # Either '(Someone) was washing (some) linen' # or '(Someone) started washing (some) linen.' Sasan'i Jeanne amina savony ny lamba. # ø-sas(a)-an(a) i Jeanne ø-amina savony ny lamba # pass.pres-stem.sasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne non-perf-with soap Det linen # Either 'The linen is being (deliberately) washed by Jeanne with (a/some) soap' # or 'Linen is usually (deliberately) washed by Jeanne with (a/some) soap.' Sasana amina savony ny lamba. # ø-sas(a)-an(a) ø-amina savony ny lamba # pass.pres-stem.sasa-suff.ana non-perf-with soap Det linen # Either 'The linen is being (deliberately) washed with (a/some) soap' # or 'Linen is usually (deliberately) washed with (a/some) soap.' Sasana ny lamba. # ø-sasa-n(a) ny lamba # pass.pres-stem.sasa-suff.ana.na Det linen # Either 'The linen is being (deliberately) washed' # or 'Linen is usually (deliberately) washed.' Sasana. # ø- sas(a)- ana # pass.pres-stem.sasa- suff.ana # Either '(Something) is being (deliberately) washed' # or '(Something) is usually (deliberately) washed.' Voasasan'i Jeanne tamina savony ny lamba. # Voa-sasa-n(a) i Jeanne t-amina savony ny lamba. # perf-root.sasa-ep.na DX.sg Jeanne perf-with soap Det linen # "The linen has been successfully washed with (a/some) soap by Jeanne.' Voasasa ny lamba. # Voa-sasa ny lamba. # perf-root.sasa Det linen # "The linen has been successfully washed.' Nosasan'i Jeanne ilay lamba. # No- sas(a.o)-an(a) i Jeanne ilay lamba. # past.pass-stem.sasa-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg linen # "Some of the (p.m.) linen was (deliberately) washed by Jeanne". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nanasa' is 'sasao' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the rather # rare passive1 suffix 'ana'. Nosasan'i Jeanne tamina savony ny lamba. # No-sas(a)-an(a) i Jeanne t-amina savony ny lamba. # pass.past-stem.sasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne perf-with soap Det linen # 'The linen was (deliberately) washed with (a/some) soap by Jeanne.' Nosasan'i Jeanne ny lamba. # No-sas(a)-an(a) i Jeanne ny lamba. # pass.past-stem.sasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne Det linen # 'The linen was (deliberately) washed by Jeanne.' Hosasan'i Jeanne amina savony ny lamba. # Ho-sas(a)-an(a) i Jeanne ø-amina savony ny lamba. # pass.fut-stem.sasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne non-perf-with soap Det linen # 'The linen will be (deliberately) washed with (a/some) soap by Jeanne.' Hosasan'i Jeanne ny lamba. # Ho-sas(a)-an(a) i Jeanne ny lamba. # pass.fut-stem.sasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne Det linen # 'The linen will be (deliberately) washed by Jeanne.' Nanasa lamba i Jeanne omaly. # N- an-(s)asa lamba i Jeanne omaly. # past-prf.an-root.sasa linen D.sg Jeanne yesterday # "Jeanne washed linen yesterday". Omaly no nanasan'i Jeanne lamba. # Omaly no n- an-(s)as(a.o)-an(a) i Jeanne lamba. # yesterday focus past-stem.anasa-pass.by D.sg Jeanne linen # "It was yesterday that Jeanne was washing linen". # The passive 2 imperative for 'nanasa' is 'anasao' from which # the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the passive 2 # suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. Anasan'i Jeanne ny lamba. # ø-an-(s)as(a)-an(a) i Jeanne ny lamba. # pass.pres-stem.anasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne Det linen # "Some of the linen is being washed by Jeanne.' # Note the correlation between PARTITIVE reading on the subject # and the Passive2 circumfix 'an...an(a)' on the verb. Anasan'i Jeanne lamba ny savony. # ø-an-(s)as(a)-an(a) i Jeanne lamba ny savony. # pass.pres-stem.anasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne linen Det soap # "The soap is being used by Jeanne to wash (some) linen.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'lamba''linen' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. Amin'ny savony no anasan'i Jeanne lamba. # ø-amin' ny savony no ø-an-(s)as(a)-an(a) i Jeanne lamba. # nonperf-with Det soap focus pass.pres-stem.anasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne linen # "It is with the soap that some linen is being washed by Jeanne.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'lamba''linen' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. # Note that the preposition 'ø-amin(a)' is retained even though the verb # is already in the Passive2 form. Ny savony no anasan'i Jeanne lamba. # Ny savony no ø-an-(s)as(a)-an(a) i Jeanne lamba. # Det soap focus pass.pres-stem.anasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne linen # "It is the soap which is being used by Jeanne to wash some linen.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'lamba''linen' # which voids the correlation 'an...ana' and the PARTITIVE reading # on the grammatical subject. # Note that the preposition 'ø-amin(a)' has been left out, but the verb # as expected is already in the Passive2 form. Ny savony, anasan'i Jeanne lamba. # Ny savony, ø-an-(s)as(a)-an(a) i Jeanne lamba. # Det soap pass.pres-stem.anasa-suff.ana DX.sg Jeanne linen # "As for the soap (exhaustive listing reading), it is being used by Jeanne to wash some linen.' # Note the crucial presence of the non-specific object 'lamba''linen'. # Note that the preposition 'ø-amin(a)' has been left out, but the verb # as expected is already in the Passive2 form. Teo ampanasana lamba i Jeanne no tonga i Paoly. # T-eo amp-an-(s)as(a)-ana lamba i Jeanne no tonga i Paoly. # past-there amp-stem.anasa-suff.ana linen DX.sg Jeanne focus arrived DX.sg Paul # 'Jeanne was in the middle of washing (some) linen when Paul arrived.' # Note the presence of the Locative PP 't-eo''past-there' and the prefix 'amp'. # active = n-an-(v)aky > n-am-aky; passive 1 = no-vak(i)-ina, non-perfective; # voa-vaky, perfective aspect; # passive 2 = n-a(n>m)-(v)aki-ana > n-am-aki-ana # where initial consonant of root drops; # where final (a) of root sas(a) drops in front of another 'a'; # where final (na) can be replaced by a clitic pronoun # -ko 'by.me'; -ny 'by.him/her' Namaky an'ilay boky i Jeanne. # N- a(n>m)-(v)aky an' ilay boky i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.vaki acc DX.sg book D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was reading the (p.m.) book". Namaky boky i Jeanne. # N- a(n>m)-(v)aky boky i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.vaki books D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was reading some books". Namaky boky betsaka i Jeanne. # N- a(n>m)-(v)aky boky betsaka i Jeanne. # past-prf.an-root.vaki books several D.sg Jeanne # "Jeanne was reading several books". Ny boky no namaky i Jeanne. # Ny boky no n- a(n>m)-(v)aky i Jeanne. # Topic books focus past-prf.an-root.vaki D.sg Jeanne # "As far as books are concerned, Jeanne was reading some". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'boky''books' while # the verb is in the active voice, with the expected PARTITIVE # reading. # Such a construction is ruled out in, among others, Potsdam (2004:248, ex.11) # as well as in Potsdam (Handout, Colloque de Syntaxe et Sémantique, Université # Paris VI, October 1, 2005, example (40)). # However, this is a perfectly grammatical Malagasy structure, which # correlates with some kind of PARTITIVE reading represented above as 'some'. Ny boky no namaky betsaka i Jeanne. # Ny boky no n- a(n>m)-(v)aky betsaka i Jeanne. # Topic books focus past-prf.an-root.vaki several D.sg Jeanne # "As far as books are concerned, Jeanne was reading several". # Note the preposed non-specific object 'boky''books' while # the verb is in the active voice, with the expected PARTITIVE # reading. # A structure similar to this was already released in Randriamasimanana # 1994: 493, ex 25a). Vakina. # ø-vak(i)-ina. # pass.pres-stem.vaki-suff.ina # Either '(...) is being (deliberately) read' # or '(...) is usually (deliberately) read.' # Stress on second syllable on 'vakina' because of suffixation with ina. Novakin'i Jeanne ilay boky. # No- vak(i)-in(a) i Jeanne ilay boky. # past.pass-stem.vaki-pass.by D.sg Jeanne DX.sg book # "The (p.m.) book was (deliberately) read by Jeanne". # The passive 1 imperative for 'namaky' is 'vakio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by # the passive 1 suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form # 'no...ina'. Novakin'i Jeanne ny boky. # No- vak(i)-in(a) i Jeanne ny boky. # past.pass-stem.vaki-pass.by D.sg Jeanne Det book # "(All) the books were (deliberately) read by Jeanne". # The passive 1 imperative for 'namaky' is 'vakio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by # the passive 1 suffix 'ina' of the discontinuous form # 'no...ina'. Hovakin'i Paoly amin'ny solomasoko ny boky. # Ho-vak(i)-in(a) i Paoly ø-amin' ny solomaso-ko ny boky. # pass.past-stem.vaki-suff.ina D.sg Paul nonperf-with Det glasses-of.mine Det book(s) # ' The book will be read (deliberately) by Paul with my glasses.' Hovakin'i Paoly ny boky. # Ho-vak(i)-in(a) i Paoly ny boky. # pass.fut-stem.vaki-suff.ina D.sg Paul Det book(s) # ' The book will be read (deliberately) by Paul.' Voavakin'i Paoly tamin'ny solomasoko ilay boky. # Voa-vaki-n(a) i Paoly t-amin' ny solomaso-ko ilay boky. # perf-root.vaki.ep.na D.sg Paul perf-with Det glasses-of-mine DX.sg book # Literally 'The (previous mention) book was successfully read by Paul with my glasses.' # 'Paul managed to read the (previous mention) book with my glasses.' # ONLY this reading of 'vaky' can combine with perfective prefix 'voa'. Voavakin'i Paoly ilay boky. # Voa-vaki-n(a) i Paoly ilay boky. # perf-root.vaki.ep.na D.sg Paul DX.sg book # Literally 'The (previous mention) book was successfully read by Paul.' # 'Paul managed to read the (previous mention) book.' Voavaky ilay boky. # Voa-vaky ilay boky. # perf-root.vaky DX.sg book # Literally 'The (previous mention) book was successfully read.' # 'The (previous mention) book was managed to be read .' # '(...) managed to read the (previous mention) book.' Voavaky. # Voa-vaky. # perf-root.vaky # Literally '(...) book was successfully read.' # '(...) was managed to be read .' # '(...) managed to read (...).' Namaky boky tamin'ny solomasoko i Paoly. # N-a(n>m)-(v)aky boky t-amin'ny solomaso-ko i Paoly. # past-pref.an-root.vaky (a) book(s) perf-with glasses-of-mine D.sg Paul # 'Paul was reading a book/books with my glasses.' Novakin'i Paoly tamin'ny solomasoko ny boky. # No-vak(i)-in(a) i Paoly t-amin' ny solomaso-ko ny boky. # pass.past-stem.vaki-suff.ina D.sg Paul perf-with Det glasses-of.mine Det book(s) # ' The book was/were read (deliberately) by Paul with my glasses.' Amin'ny solomasoko no amakian'i Paoly boky. # ø-amin' ny solomaso-ko no ø-a(n>m)-(v)aki-an(a) i Paoly boky. # nonperf-with Det glasses-of.mine focus pass.pres-stem.amaki-suff.ana D.sg Paul (a) book(s) # Either 'It is with my glasses that Paul was reading a book/s' # or 'It is with my glasses that Paul usually reads a book/s.' # Note the crucial presence of the nondefinite object 'boky''(a) book(s)'. # Note that the preposition ø-amin(a)' has been retained even though the verb # is already in the Passive2 form. Ny solomasoko no amakian'i Paoly boky. # Ny solomaso-ko no ø-a(n>m)-(v)aki-an(a) i Paoly boky. # Det glasses-of.mine focus pass.pres-stem.amaki-suff.ana D.sg Paul (a) book(s) # Either 'It is my glasses which are being used by Paul to (deliberately) read a book/s' # or 'It is my glasses which are habitually used by Paul to (deliberately) read a book/s.' # Note the crucial presence of the nondefinite object 'boky''(a) book(s)'. # Note that the preposition 'ø-amin(a)' has been left out, but as expected the # verb is already in the Passive2 form. Ny solomasoko, amakian'i Paoly boky. # Ny solomaso-ko ø-a(n>m)-(v)aki-an(a) i Paoly boky. # Det glasses-of.mine pass.pres-stem.amaki-suff.ana D.sg Paul (a) book(s) # Either 'As for my glasses (exhaustive listing), they are being used by Paul to (deliberately) read a book/s' # or 'As for my glasses (exhaustive listing), they are habitually used by Paul to (deliberately) read a book/s.' # Note the crucial presence of the nondefinite object 'boky''(a) book(s)'. Namaky an'ilay boky i Jeanne omaly. # N- am-(v)aky an' ilay boky i Jeanne omaly. # past-prf.an-root.vaki acc DX.sg book D.sg Jeanne yesterday # "Jeanne was reading the (p.m.) book yesterday". Omaly no namakian'i Jeanne an'ilay boky. # Omaly no n- a(n>m)-(v)aki-an(a) i Jeanne an' ilay boky. # yesterday focus past-CAUSAL.pref.an-stem.vaki-pass.by D.sg Jeanne acc DX.sg book # "It was yesterday Jeanne was reading the (p.m.) book". # The passive 2 imperative for 'namaky' is 'amakio' from # which the suffix 'o''by.you' has been replaced by the # passive 2 suffix 'ana' of the discontinuous 'an...ana'. # The adjunct 'omaly''yesterday' has been incorporated and has # been 'promoted' to subject. It has been obligatorily been 'fronted'. Teo ampamakiana boky tamin'ny solomasoko i Paoly no tonga i Jeanne. # T-eo amp-a(n>m)-(v)aki-an(a) boky t-amin' ny solomaso-ko i Paoly no tonga i Jeanne. # past-amp-pref.an-stem.amaki-suff.ana (a) book(s) perf-with Det glasses-of.mine D.sg Paul focus arrived D.sg Jeanne # Literally 'Paul was in the middle of reading (a) book(s) with my glasses when Jeanne arrived.' # Note the presence of the Locative PP 't-eo''past-there' and the prefix 'amp'. Teo ampamakiana boky i Paoly no tonga i Jeanne. # T-eo amp-a(n>m)-(v)aki-an(a) boky i Paoly no tonga i Jeanne. # past-amp-pref.an-stem.amaki-suff.ana (a) book(s) D.sg Paul focus arrived D.sg Jeanne # Literally 'Paul was in the middle of reading (a) book(s) when Jeanne arrived.' # Note the presence of the Locative PP 't-eo''past-there' and the prefix 'amp'. # active = n-a(n>m)-(f)eno > n-am-eno; passive 1 = no-feno-i(na) # passive 2 = n-a(n>m)-(f)eno-ina > n-am-eno-ina; Nameno rano ny tavoahangy i Sahondra. # N- a(n>m)- (f)eno rano ny tavoahangy i Sahondra. # past-caus-root.feno water Det.unspec bottle(s) D.sg Sahondra # "Sahondra filled the (p.m.) bottles with water". Nofenoin'i Sahondra rano ny tavoahangy. # No- feno-in(a) i Sahondra rano ny tavoahangy. # past.pass-stem.feno-pass.by D.sg Sahondra water Det.unspec bottle(s) # "The (p.m.) bottles were filled (deliberately) with water by Sahondra". # The passive 1 imperative for 'nameno' is 'fenoy' from which # the suffix 'y' has been replaced with the passive 1 suffix # 'ina' of the discontinuous form 'no...ina'. Nameno rano ny tavoahangy tamin'ilay zinga i Sahondra. # N- am- (f)eno rano ny tavoahangy t-amin' ilay zinga # past-caus-root.feno water Det.unspec bottle(s) perf-with DX.sg ladle # i Sahondra. # D.sg Sahondra # "Sahondra filled the (p.m.) bottles with water using the (p.m.) ladle". Namenoan'i Sahondra rano ny tavoahangy ilay zinga. # N- a(n>m)-(f)eno-an(a) i Sahondra rano ny tavoahangy # past-pass-stem.ameno-pass.by D.sg Sahondra water Det.unspec bottles # ilay zinga. # DX.sg ladle # "The (p.m.) ladle was being used by Sahondra to fill the (p.m.) bottles with # water".The passive 2 imperative for 'nameno' is 'amenoy' from which # the final 'y' has been replaced by the passive 2 suffix 'ana' # of the discontinuous form 'an...ana'. # active = n-i-rofotra; passive 1 = NONE. Nirofotra teo amin’ny tarehin’i Soa ny mony. # N-i-rofotra t-eo amin’ny tarehi-n’i Soa ny mony. # past-prf.i-root.rofotra past-there on Det.unspec face-of D.sg Soa Det.un. pimples # ‘The pimples exploded on Soa’s face.’ # This sequence has been adapted from Rabenilaina. Lexique-Grammaire du # Malgache. PhD dissertation, Université Paris 7, France.1985. # The PP 't-eo amin'ny tarehin'i Soa''past-on Soa's face' is an adjunct to # the STATIVE verb 'nirofotra''past-explode': This verb clearly contains the # negatively valued feature [- CONTROL]. # Note the adjunct status of PP 'teo amin'ny tarehin'i Soa' is indicated by the # gloss 'past' for the prefix 't' on the particle 'teo'. # A 'past...past' configuration is the hallmark of adjunction, as explained # and illustrated in Randriamasimanana (1999: 525). # The stative verb 'nirofotra' does not possess a passive imperative form.