Com (verb, past third person singular): cuman come

on (preposition + dative): on, in

wanre (adjective, feminine dative singular): wann dark

niht (noun, feminine dative singular): niht night

scriðan (verb, infinitive): glide

sceadugenga (noun, masculine nominative singular): shadow-walker

Sceotend (noun, masculine nominative plural): sceotend warrior, bowman

swæfon (verb, past third person plural): swefan sleep

þa (pronoun, nominitive plural): se the, that.  Here: (those) who

þæt (article, neuter accusative singular): se the, that.  Here: that

hornreced (noun, neuter accusative singular): hornreced gabled hall

healdan (verb, infinitive): hold, defend

scoldon (verb, past subjunctive third person plural): sculan must, ought to

ealle (adjective, masculine nominative plural): eall all.

buton (preposition + dative): butan except.

anum (pronoun/adjective, masculine dative singular): an one (i.e., Beowulf)

Þæt (pronoun, neuter accusative singular): se that

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

yldum (noun, masculine dative plural): ælde men

cuþ (adjective, nominative singular): familiar, well known

þæt (conjunction): that

hie (third person pronoun, accusative plural): he.  Here: them

ne (adverb): not.  Here: modifying moste

moste (verb, past third person singular): motan may, be allowed to       

þa (conjunction): when

metod (noun, masculine nominative singular): meotod creator

nolde (verb, subjunctive third persom singular): ne (negative particle) + willan wish

se (article, nominative singular masculine): the

scynscaþa (noun, masculine nominative singular): spectral foe, hostile demon        

under (preposition + dative or accusative): under, into

sceadu (noun, feminine accustive plural): shadow

bregdan (verb, infinitive): drag, draw

ac (conjugation): but

he (third person pronoun, masculine third singular): he

wæccende (verb, present participle): wæccan keep awake, watch       

wraþum (adjective, masculine dative singular): wraþ hostile, cruel

on (preposition): on, in

andan (noun, masculine dative singular): anda malice, hostility

bad (verb + genitive, past third person singular): bidan await

bolgenmod (adjective, nominative singular): enraged       

beadwa (noun, neuter genitive plural): beadu battle

geþinges (noun, neuter genitive singular): (ge)þinge result 

ða (adverb): þa then

com (verb, past third person singular): cuman come

of (preposition + dative): from

more (noun, masculine dative singular): mor moor, marsh, wasteland    

under (preposition + dative or accusative): under, by

misthleoþum (noun, neuter dative plural): misthliþ misty hill

Grendel (personal name, masculine nominative singular): Grendel (the monster)

gongan (verb, infinitive): walk   

godes (noun, masculine genitive singular): god God

yrre (noun, neuter accusative singular): anger

bær (verb, past third person singular): beran bear

mynte (verb, past third singular): myntan intend, think

se (article, masculine nominative singular): the

manscaða (noun, masculine nominative singular): ravager, evil-doer

manna (noun, masculine genitive plural): mann man

cynnes (noun neuter genitive singular): cynn kind

sumne (pronoun or adjective, masculine accusative singular): sum a certain, some

besyrwan (verb, infinitive): ensnare

in (preposition): in, inside

sele (noun, masculine dative singular): hall

þam (article, masculine dative singular): se the

hean (adjective, masculine dative singular): heah high

Wod (verb, past third person): wadan advance, trudge

under (preposition + dative or accusative): under

wolcnum (noun, masculine dative plural): wolcen cloud       

to (preposition + dative): to

þæs (article, masculine or neuter genitive singular): se that

þe (relative particle): which, that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

winreced (noun, masculine accusative singular): wine-hall

goldsele (noun, masculine accusative singular): gold-hall

gumena (noun, masculine genitive plural): guma men      

gearwost (adverb, superlative): gerare readily, clearly

wisse (verb, past third person): witan know.  Here: recognize

fættum (noun, neuter dative plural): fæt gold ornament, ornamental plate

fahne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): fah stained.  Here: decorated

Ne (negative particle)

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

þæt (article, neuter nominative singular): se that

forma (adjective, masculine nominative singular): first

sið (noun, masculine nominative singular): time, occasion

þæt (conjunction): that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

Hroþgares (personal name, masculine genitive singular): Hroðgar (lord of the Scyldings)       

ham (noun, masculine dative singular): home

gesohte (verb, past third person singular): (ge)secan seek, visit

næfre (adverb): never

he (pronoun, masculine third singular): he

on (preposition + dative): in

aldordagum (noun, masculine dative plural): ealdordagas days of life       

ær (adverb): before, previously

ne (negative particle): Here: nor

siþðan (adverb): siððan since

heardran (adjective, comparative, feminine accusative singular): heard hard

hæle (noun, feminine accusative singular): hælo luck       

healðegnas (noun, masculine accusative plural): healðegn hall-thane

fand (verb, past third person singular): findan find

Com (verb, past third person singular): cuman come

þa (adverb): then

to (preposition + dative): to

recede (noun, masculine dative singular): reced building      

rinc (noun, masculine nominative singular): warrior, man

siðian (verb, infinitive): travel.  Here: stalking

dreamum (noun, masculine dative plural): dream joy

bedæled (verb + dative or genitive, past particple): bedælan deprive       

Duru (noun, feminine nominative singular): door

sona (adverb): immediately

onarn (noun, past third person singular): onirnan give way, spring open

fyrbendum (noun, feminine dative plural): fyrbend band forged with fire

fæst (adjective, feminine nominative singular): fast, firm, fixed      

syþðan (adverb or conjunction): syþþan after, when

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

hire (third person pronoun, feminine genitive singular): he Here: it

folmum (noun, feminine dative plural): folme hand

æthran (verb, past third person singular): æthrinan touch, move

onbræd (verb, past third person singular): onbregdan swing open

þa (adverb): then, when

bealohydig (adjective, nominative singular masculine): evil-minded, intending evil, hostile        

ða (adverb): þa then, when

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

gebolgen (verb, past participle): (ge)belgan enrage

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

recedes (noun, masculine genitive singular): reced building

muþan (noun, masculine accusative singular): muþ mouth  

Raþe (adverb): hraþe quickly, soon

æfter (preposition + dative): after

þon (instrumental singular): se that

on (preposition + dative): on

fagne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): fah stained, decorated

flor (noun, masculine accusative singular): floor      

feond (noun, masculine nominative singular): enemy

treddode (verb, past third person singular): treddian step, go, tread

eode (verb, past third person singular): gan go, walk

yrremod (adjective, masculine nominative singular): angry, angry-minded        

him (third person pronoun, masculine dative singular): he he

of (preposition + dative): from

eagum (noun, neuter dative plural): eage eye

stod (verb, past third person plural): standan stand

ligge (noun, masculine dative singular): lig fire

gelicost (adjective +dative, superlative): (ge)lic like       

leoht (noun, neuter nominative singular): light

unfæger (adjective, neuter nominative singular): un-beautiful, horrible

Geseah (verb, past third person singular): (ge)seon see

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

in (preposition + dative): in

recede (noun, masculine dative singular): reced building        

rinca (noun, masculine genitive plural): warrior, man

manige (adjective, nominative plural): manig many

swefan (verb, infinitive): sleep Here: sleeping

sibbegedriht (noun, feminine accusative singular): band of kinsmen        

samod (adverb): together

ætgædere (adverb): together

magorinca (noun, masculine genitive plural): magorinc warrior

heap (noun, masculine accusative singular): band, multitude

þa (adverb): then

his (third person pronoun, masculine genitive singular): he he

mod (noun, neuter nominative singular): mind, spirit, mood

ahlog (verb, past third person singular): ahliehhan laugh at, deride, exult

mynte (verb, past third person singular): myntan intend

þæt (conjunction): that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

gedælde (verb, subjunctive third person singular): (ge)dælan part, separate, divide        

ærþon (adverb): see ær before

dæg (noun, masculine nominative singular): day

cwome (verb, subjunctive third person singuar): cuman come

atol (adjective, masculine nominative singular): terrible, hateful

aglæca (noun, masculine nominative singular): combatant, awesome assailant         

anra (adjective, genitive plural): an one

gehwylces (pronoun, genitive singular): (ge)hwelc each

lif (noun, neuter accusative singular): life

wið (preposition + dative): against.  Here: from

lice (noun, neuter dative singular): lic body        

þa (adverb): then, when

him (third person pronoun, masculine dative singular): he he

alumpen (verb, past participle): alimpan befall, come to pass

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

wistfylle (noun, feminine genitive singular): wistfyllo fill of feasting

wen (noun, feminine nominative singular): expectation, hope

Ne (negative particle)

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

þæt (article, neuter nominative singular): se that

wyrd (noun, feminine nominative singular): fate

þa (adverb): then 

gen (adverb): yet

þæt (conjunction): that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he 

ma (noun, indeclinable accusative singular): more

moste (verb, past subjenctive third person singular): motan may, be allowed to        

manna (noun, masculine genitive plural): mann man

cynnes (noun neuter genitive singular): cynn kind

ðicgean (verb, infinitive): þicgan recieve, partake of, eat

ofer (preposition): after

þa (article, feminine accusative singular): se that

niht (noun, feminine accusative singular): niht night        

þryðswyð (adjective, masculine nominative singular): strong, mighty

beheold (verb, past third person singular): behealdan behold, gaze at

mæg (noun, masculine nominative singular): kinsman

Higelaces (personal name, genitive singular): Hygelac (Beowulf’s uncle, lord of the Geats)     

hu (adverb): how

se (article, masculine nominative singular): the

manscaða (noun, masculine nominative singular): ravager, evil-doer

under (preposition + dative): under, in the course of

færgripum (noun, masculine dative plural): færgripe sudden grip, sudden attack      

gefaran (verb, infinitive): (ge)faran proceed, act

wolde (verb, subjunctive third person singular): willan will

Ne (negative particle)

þæt (conjunction): that

se (article, masculine nominative singular): the

aglæca (noun, masculine nominative singular): combatant, belligerent       

yldan (verb, infinitive): delay

þohte (verb, past third person singular): þencean think, intend

ac (conjunction): but

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

gefeng (verb, past third person singular): (ge)fon catch

hraðe (adverb): quickly, soon       

forman (adjective, masculine accusative singular): forma first

siðe (noun, masculine nominative singular): sið time, occasion

slæpendne (verb, present participle): slæpan sleep

rinc (noun, masculine accusative singular): man, warrior        

slat (verb, past third person singular): slitan tear, rend

unwearnum (adverb) eagerly, greedily

bat (verb, past third person singular): bitan bite

banlocan (noun, masculine accusative plural): banloca joint, body       

blod (noun, neuter accusative singular): blood

edrum (adverb): ædre swiftly, immediately OR (noun, feminine dative plural): ædr vein

dranc (verb, past third person plural): drincan drink

synsnædum (noun, feminine dative plural): synsnæd huge/sinful gobbet/morsel

swealh (verb, past third person singular): swelgan swallow      

sona (adverb): immediately

hæfde (verb, past third person): habban have

unlyfigendes (adjective, masculine genitive singular): unlyfigende not living, dead       

eal (adjective, neuter accusative singular): eall all

gefeormod (verb, past participle): (ge)feormian consume, eat up

fet (noun, masculine accusative plural): fot foot

ond (conjunction): and

folma (noun, feminine accusative plural): folme hand

Forð (adverb): forth, forward

near (adverb, comparative): neah near

ætstop (verb, past third person singular): ætsteppan step forth

nam (vern, past third person singular): niman take

þa (adverb): then

mid (prepostion + dative): with

handa (noun, feminine dative singular): hand hand        

higeþihtigne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): higeþihtig strong-hearted, determined

rinc (noun, masculine accusative singular): warrior, man

on (preposition + dative): in

ræste (noun, feminine dative singular): rest resting place        

ræhte (verb, past third person singular): ræcan reach (out)

ongean (verb, past third person singluar): onginnan begin 

feond (noun, masculine nominative singular): enemy

mid (prepostion + dative): with

folme (noun, feminine dative singular): hand        

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

onfeng (verb, past third person singular): onfon receive, take up

hraþe (adverb): hraðe quickly

inwitþancum (noun, masculine dative plural): inwitþanc hostile purpose        

ond (conjunction): and

wið (preposition): against

earm (noun, masculine accusative singular): arm

gesæt (verb, past third person singular): (ge)sittan sit (up)

Sona (adverb): immediately, as soon as

þæt (conjunction): that

onfunde (verb, past third person singular): onfindan discover, realize       

fyrena (noun, feminine genitive plural): fyren crime

hyrde (noun, masciline nominative singular): guardian, keeper, master

þæt (conjunction): that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

ne (negative particle)

mette (verb, past third person singular): metan meet, encounter       

middangeardes (noun, masculine genitive singular): middangeard world, middle earth

eorþan (noun, feminine accusative singular): eorðe earth

sceata (noun, masculine genitive plural): sceat surface, region

on (preposition + dative) in

elran (adjective, masculine dative singular): elra another

men (noun, masculine dative singular): mann man

mundgripe (noun, masculine accusative singular): hand-grip

maran (adjective, comparative of micel, masculine accusative singular): more, longer         

He (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

on (preposition + dative) in

mode (noun, neuter dative singular): mod spirit, courage, mind

wearð (verb, past third person singular): wearðan become, happen

forht (adjective, masculine nominative singular) afraid

on (preposition + dative) in

ferhðe (noun, neuter dative singular): ferð spirit, mind        

no (adverb): na no, by no means, not at all, never

þy (article, neuter instrumental singular): se the, that

ær (adverb): before, previously

fram (preposition + dative) from

meahte (verb, past subjunctive third person singular): magan be able

Hyge (noun, masculine nominative singular): hige mind, heart, courage

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

him (third person pronoun, masculine dative singular): he he

hinfus (adjective, masculine nominative singular): eager to get away         

wolde (verb, past third person singular): willan wish, desire

on (preposition + dative) in

heolster (noun, masculine accusative singular): heolstor darkness, hiding place

fleon (verb, infinitive): flee

secan (verb, infinitive): seek

deofla (noun, masculine genitive plural): deofol devil

gedræg (noun, naominative accusative singular): (ge)dræg tumult, noisy company, hubbub       

ne (negative particle)

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

his (third person pronoun, masculine genitive singular): he he

drohtoð (noun, masculine nominative singular): course, way of life

þær (adverb): there

swylce (adjective, masculine nominative plural): swelc such

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

on (preposition + dative) in

ealderdagum (noun, masculine dative plural): ealdordagas days of life       

ær (adverb): before, previously

gemette (verb, past third person singular): (ge)meton meet, find

Gemunde (verb, past third person singular): (ge)munan remember

þa (adverb): then

se (article, nominative singular masculine): the.

goda (adjective, masculine nominative singular): god good         

mæg (noun, masculine nominative singular): kinsman

Higelaces (personal name, masculine genitive singular): Hygelac

æfenspræce (noun, feminine accusative singular): æfenspræc evening speech        

uplang (adjective, masculine nominative singular): upright

astod (verb, past third person singular): astandan stand up, get up

ond (conjunction): and

him (third person pronoun, masculine dative singular): he he

fæste (adverb): firmly, fast

wiðfeng (verb, past third person singular): wiðfon lay hold on       

fingras (noun, masculine nominative plural): finger finger

burston (verb, past third person plural): berstan burst, fall apart

Eoten (noun, masculine nominative singular): giant

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

utweard (adjective, masculine nominative singular): turning outward        

eorl (noun, masculine nominative singular): nobleman

furþur (adverb): further, forward

stop (verb, past third person singular): steppan step, advance

Mynte (verb, past third singular): myntan intend, think

se (article, nominative singular masculine): the  

mæra (adj, masculine nominative singular): famous, notorious (one)        

þær (conjunction): where

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

meahte (verb, past third person singular):

swa (conjunction): as

widre (adjective, comparative, neuter accusative singular): wid wide, broad, Here: faraway place

gewindan (verb, infinintive): escape       

ond (conjunction): and

on (preposition): on

weg (noun, masculine accusative singular): way

þanon (adverb): thence, from there

fleon (verb, infinitive): flee

on (preposition + accusative): in, into

fenhopu (noun, neuter accusative plural): fenhop fen-hollow, retreat or enclosed land in the fen

wiste (verb, past third person singular): witan know

his (third person pronoun, masculine genitive singular): he he

fingra (noun, masculine genitive plural): finger finger

geweald (noun, neuter accusative singular): (ge)weald power, control, dominion

on (preposition + dative): on, in

grames (adjective, masculine genitive singular): gram fierce, hostile

grapum (noun, feminine dative plural): grap grip, grasp        

Þæt (article, neuter nominative singular): se that

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

geocor (adjective, masculine nominative singular): grevious, sad

sið (noun, masculine nominative singular): journey, fate

þæt (conjunction): that

se (article, nominative singular masculine): the 

hearmscaþa (noun, masculine nominative singular): terrible enemy       

to (preposition + dative): to

Heorute (proper noun, masculine dative singular): Heorot (the hall)

ateah (verb, past third person singular): ateon draw, unsheathe

Dryhtsele (noun, masculine nominative singular): princely hall

dynede (verb, past third person singular): dynnan resound        

Denum (proper noun, masculine dative plural): Dene Danes

eallum (adjective, masculine dative plural): eall all

wearð (verb, past third person singular): wearðan become, happen

ceasterbuendum (noun, masculine dative plural): ceasterbuend city-dweller        

cenra (adjective, masculine genitive plural): cene keen, brave

gehwylcum (pronoun, masculine dative singular): (ge)hwylc each

eorlum (noun, masculine dative plural): eorl nobleman

ealuscerwen (noun, feminine nominative singular): distress, dire terror (see note)     

Yrre (adjective, masculine nominative plural): angry

wæron (verb, past third person plural): beon be

begen (pronoun, masculine nominative plural): both

reþe (adjective, masculine nominative plural): fierce, cruel, furious

renweardas (noun, masculine nominative plural): renweard hall-guardian       

Reced (noun, masculine nominative singular): building, hall

hlynsode (verb, past third person singular): hlynsian resound

Þa (article, nominative plural): se that

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

wundor (noun, neuter nominative singular): wonder

micel (adjective, neuter nominative singular): great        

þæt (conjunction): that

se (article, masculine nominative singular): the

winsele (noun, masculine nominative singular): hall

wiðhæfde (verb + dative, past third person singular): wiðhabban withstand, hold out against

heaþodeorum (adjective, masculine dative plural): heaþodeor brave in battle        

þæt (conjunction): that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): it

on (preposition): on

hrusan (noun, feminine accusative singular): hruse earth

ne (negative particle)

feol (verb, past third person singular): feallan fall

fæger (adjective, neuter nominative singular): beautiful, pleasant

foldbold (noun, neuter nominative singular): building        

ac (conjunction): but

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): it

þæs (conjunction): so 

fæste (adverb): firmly, fast

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

innan (adverb): inside, from within

ond (conjunction): and

utan (adverb): on the outside, from without        

irenbendum (noun, feminine dative plural): irenbend iron band

searoþoncum (noun, masculine dative plural): searoþonc ingenuity, skill

besmiþod (verb, past participle): besmiþian fasten, adorn, strengthen

Þær (adverb): there

fram (preposition): from

sylle (noun, feminine dative singular): syll sill, floor

abeag (verb, past third person singular): abugan yield, give way

medubenc (noun, feminine nominative singular): medobenc

monig (adjective, feminine nominative singular): manig many        

mine (possessive adjective, neuter instrumental singular): min my, mine

gefræge (noun, neuter instrumental singular): (ge)fræge information through hearsay 

golde (noun, neuter dative singular): gold gold

geregnad (adjective, masculine nominative singular): (ge)regnad ornamented, decorated      

þær (adverb): where

þa (article, nominative plural): se the

graman (adjective, masculine nominative plural): gram fierce, hostile

wunnon (verb, past third person plural): winnan struggle, fight

Þæs (pronoun, neuter genitive singular): se that

ne (negative particle)

wendon (verb + genitive, past third person plural): wenan think, expect

ær (adverb): before, previously        

witan (noun, masculine nominative plural): wita wise man, counsellor

Scyldinga (masculine genitive plural): Scyldingas the Danes.        

þæt (conjunction): that

hit (pronoun, neuter accusative singular): he it

a (adverb): ever

mid (preposition): with

gemete (noun, neuter accusative singular): (ge)met measure, metre, moderation       

manna (noun, masculine genitive plural): mann man

ænig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): any 

betlic (adjective, neuter accusative singular): excellent, splendid

ond (conjunction): and

banfag (adjective, neuter accusative singular): adorned with bone        

tobrecan (verb, infinitive): break open, shatter, destroy

meahte (verb, past third person singular): magan be able

listum (noun, feminine dative plural): list art, skill, cunning

tolucan (verb, infinitive): pull asunder, destroy        

nymþe (conjunction): unless, except

liges (noun, masculine genitive singular): lig flame, fire

fæþm (noun, masculine nominative singular): fæðm embrace

swulge (verb + dative, subjunctive third person singular): swelgan swallow

on (preposition + dative): in 

swaþule (noun, masculine or neuter dative singular) : swaþul flame, heat        

Sweg (noun, masculine nominative singular): sound, din

up (adverb): upp up

astag (verb, past third person singular): astigan ascend, proceed

niwe (adjective, masculine nominative singular): new

geneahhe (adverb): sufficiently, frequently, often, very        

Norðdenum (proper noun, masculine dative plural): Norðdene North-Danes, Danes

stod (verb, past third person singular): standan stand, remain

atelic (adjective, masculine nominative singular): horrible, dreadful

egesa (noun, masculine nominative singular): awe, terror       

anra (adjective, genitive plural): an one

gehwylcum (pronoun, masculine dative singular): (ge)hwylc each

þara (article, dative plural): se that

þe (indeclinable realitive particle): which, who, that

of (preposition): from

wealle (noun, masculine dative singular): weal wall

wop (noun, masculine accusative singular): weeping, lamentation

gehyrdon (verb, past third person plural): (ge)hieran hear

gryreleoð (noun, neuter accusative singular): song of terror, terrible song

galan (verb, infinitive): sing, sound         

godes (proper noun, masculine genitive singular): god God

ondsacan (noun, masculine accusative singular): andsaca enemy, adversary

sigeleasne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): sigeleas without victory, in defeat

sang (noun, masculine accusative singular): song sing, cry         

sar (noun, neuter accusative singular): pain, wound

wanigean (verb, infinitive): bewail

helle (noun, feminine genitive singular): hell hell

hæfton (noun, masculine accusative singular): hæft captive         

Heold (verb, past third person singular): healdan hold

hine (pronoun, masculine accusative singular): he he

fæste (adverb): firmly, fast

se (article, nominative singular masculine): the

þe (indeclinable realitive particle): which, who, that

manna (noun, masculine genitive plural): mann man

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

mægene (noun, neuter dative singular) mægen strength, power

strengest (adjective, superlative masculine nominative singular): strang strong

on (preposition + dative): in 

þæm (article, masculine dative singular): se the, that

dæge (noun, masculine dative singular): dæg day       

þysses (article, neuter genitive singular): þes this 

lifes (noun, neuter genitive singular): lif life

on (preposition + dative): in

earmlic (adjective, neuter nominative singular): wretched

fyrene (noun, feminine genitive plural): fyren crime

atol (adjective, masculine nominative singular): terrible

syndolh (noun, neuter nominative singular): terrible wound

burston (verb, past third person plural): berstan burst

æfter (preposition + dative): after

Geatmecga (noun, masculine genitive plural): Geatmæcgas Geatish people

torn (noun, neuter accusative singular): suffering, sorrow

ferdon (verb, past third person plural): feran journey, travel

laþes (adjective, masculine genitive singular): lað hostile

No (adverb): na no, by no means, not at all, never

his (third person pronoun, masculine genitive singular): he he

lifgedal (noun, neuter nominative singular): lifgedæl parting from life, death

sarlic (adjective, neuter mominative singular): painful, sad

þuhte (impers. verb, past third person singular): þyncan seem

secga (noun, masculine genitive plural): secg man, warrior

ænegum (adjective, masculine dative singular): ænig any

þara (article, dative plural): se that

þe (indeclinable realitive particle): which, who, that

tirleases (adjective, masculine genitive singular): tirleas inglorious, vanquished

trode (noun, feminine accusative plural): trodu track, footprint

sceawode (verb, past third person singular) sceawian see, behold, look at

hu (adverb): how

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

werigmod (adjective, masculine nominative singular): weary-minded, disconsolate

on (preposition): on

weg (noun, masculine accusative singular): way

þanon (adverb): thence, from there

niða (noun, masculine genitive plural): niþ hatred, malice, affliction

ofercumen (verb, past participle): ofercuman overcome

on (preposition): in

nicera (noun, masculine genitive plural): nicor sea monster

mere (noun, masculine accusative singular): pool, lake

fæge (adjective, masculine nominative singular): fated, doomed to die

ond (conjunction): and

geflymed (verb, past participle):flyman put to flight

feorhlastas (noun, masculine accusative plural): feorhlast bloody track

bær (verb, past third person singular): beran carry, bear

Ðær (adverb): there

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

on (preposition): in

blode (noun, neuter dative singular): blod blood

brim (noun, neuter nominative singular) sea, water

weallende (verb, present participle): weallan well, surge, boil

atol (adjective, neuter nominative singular): terrible, hateful

yða (noun, feminine genitive plural): yþ wave

geswing (noun, neuter nominative singular): (ge)swing vibration, swirl, surf

eal (adverb): eall all

gemenged (verb, past participle): (ge)mengan mingle

haton (adjective, masculine dative singular): hat hot

heolfre (noun, masculine dative singular): heolfor blood, gore

heorodreore (noun, masculine dative singular): heorodreor battle blood

weol (verb, past third person singular): weallan well, surge, boil

Deaðfæge (adjective, nominative singular): fated to die, doomed (Here used as a noun)

deog (verb, past third person singular): deagan conceal, be concealed

siððan (adverb): afterwards, later

dreama (noun, masculine genitive plural): dream joy

leas (adjective, masculine nominative singular): devoid of, without

in (preposition + dative): into

fenfreoðo (noun, feminine dative singular): refuge of the fens

feorh (noun, neuter accusative singular): life

alegde (verb, past third person singular): alecgan lay down, give up

hæþene (adjective, feminine accusative singular): hæþen heathen

sawle (noun, feminine accusative singular): sawol soul

þær (conjunction): when, where

him (third person pronoun, masculine dative singular): he he

hel (noun, feminine nominative singular): hell hell

onfeng (verb, past third person singular): onfon receive

Þanon (adverb): thence, from there

eft (adverb): again, afterwards, thereupon, back

gewiton (verb, past third person plural): (ge)witon depart

ealdgesiðas (noun, masculine nominative plural): ealdgesið old comrade or retainer

swylce (adverb): likewise, such

geong (adjective, masculine nominative singular): young (Here used as a noun)

manig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): many, many a

of (preposition): from

gomenwaþe (noun, feminine dative singular): gomenwaþ joyous journey

fram (preposition): from, by

mere (noun, masculine dative singular): pool, lake

modge (adjective, masculine nominative plural): modig brave, bold, arrogant

mearum (noun, masculine dative plural): mearh horse

ridan (verb, infinitive): ride

beornas (noun, masculine dative plural): beorn man, warrior

on (preposition): on

blancum (noun, masculine dative plural): blanca white, grey

Ðær (adverb): there

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

Beowulfes (personal name, genitive singular)

mærðo (noun, feminine nominative singular): mærðu fame, glory

mæned (verb, past participle): mænan speak of, relate

monig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): manig many, many a

oft (adverb) often

gecwæð (verb, past third person singular): (ge)cweðan speak, utter

þætte (conjunction): þæt þe that

suð (adverb): southwards

ne (conjunction): nor

norð (adverb): northwards

be (preposition): about

sæm (noun, masculine and feminine dative plural): sæ sea

tweonum (number, dative plural): tweone two

ofer (preposition): over

eormengrund (noun, masculine accusative singular): spacious ground

oþer (adjective/pronoun masculine nominative singular): other, another

nænig (pronoun, nominative singular): not any

under (preposition): under

swegles (noun, neuter genitive singular): swegl sky, heaven

begong (noun, masculine accusative singular): circuit, compass, region

selra (comparative adjective, masculine nominative singular): better

nære (negative particle + verb, past third person plural) beon be

rondhæbbendra (noun, masculine genitive plural): randhæbbend shield-bearer, warrior

rices (noun, neuter genitive singular): rice kingdom, reign

wyrðra (comaparative adjective, masculine nominative singular): weorð worthy, dear, valuable

Ne (negative particle): not, nor

hie (third person pronoun, nominative plural): he.  Here: they

huru (third person pronoun, genitive plural): he. Here: their

winedrihten (noun, masculine accusative singular): winedryhten friend-lord, beloved lord

wiht (adverb): wihte at all

ne negative particle): no, not

logon (verb, past third person plural): lean blame, find fault with

glædne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): glæd gracious, kind

Hroðgar (personal name, accusative singular)

ac (conjunction): but

þæt (pronoun, neuter accusative singular): se that

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

god (adjective, masculine nominative singular): good

cyning (noun, masculine nominative singular): king

Hwilum (noun, feminine dative plural): hwil time, while.  Here: sometimes

heaþorofe (adjective, masculine nominative plural): heaþorof brave in battle. (Here: used as a noun)

hleapan (verb, infinitive): leap, gallop

leton (verb, past third person plural): lætan let, allow

on (preposition + dative): on, in

geflit (noun, neuter accusative singular): (ge)flit dispute, contest

faran (verb, infinitive): go, travel, advance

fealwe (adjective, masculine accusative plural): fealu tawny, dark

mearas (noun, masculine accusative plural): mearh horse

ðær (adverb): where

him (pronoun, masculine dative plural): he he (Here: to them)

foldwegas (noun, masculine nominative plural): foldweg way, path, literaly earth-path

fægere (adjective, masculine nominative plural): fæger beautiful, pleasant

þuhton (verb, past third person plural): þyncan seem

cystum (adjective, feminine dative plural): cyst best

cuðe (adjective, masculine nominative plural): cuð familiar, well-known

Hwilum (noun, feminine dative plural): hwil time, while.  Here: sometimes

cyninges (noun, masculine genitive singular): cyning king

þegn (noun, masculine nominative singular): thane, retainer, warrior

guma (noun, masculine nominative singular): man

gilphlæden (adjective, masculine nominative singular): covered in glory

gidda (noun, neuter genitive plural): giedd song

gemyndig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): (ge)myndig mindful

se (article, masculine nominative singular): the, that

ðe (indeclinable relative particle): þe which, who, that

ealfela (adjective, accusative singular): very much, a great many

ealdgesegena (noun, feminine genitive plural): ealdgesegen old tradition

worn (noun, masculine accusative singular): large number

gemunde (verb, past third person singular): (ge)munan remember

word (noun, neuter accusative plural): word

oþer (adjective, neuter accusative plural): other

fand (verb, past third person singular): findan find

soðe (adverb): truly

gebunden (verb, past third person singular) (ge)bindan

secg (noun, masculine nominative singular): man, warrior

eft (adverb): afterwards, again, thereupon

ongan (verb, past third person singular): onginnan begin, start

sið (noun, masculine accusative singular): journey, adventure

Beowulfes (personal name, genitive singular)

snyttrum (noun, feminine dative plural): snytro wisdom

styrian (verb, infinitive): stir up, treat upon, engage

ond (conjunction): and

on (preposition): in, on

sped (noun, feminine accusative singular): means

wrecan (verb, infinitive): utter

spel (noun, neuter accusative singular): spell story, message

gerade (adjective, neuter accusative singular): (ge)rad skillful, apt

wordum (noun, neuter dative plural): word word

wrixlan (verb, infinitive + dative): change, exchange, vary

Welhwylc (adjective, neuter accusative singular): everything

gecwæð (verb, past third person singular): (ge)cweðan speak, utter

þæt (conjunction): that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

fram (preposition + dative) from

Sigemundes (personal name, genitive singular)

secgan (verb, infinitive): tell

hyrde (verb, past third person singular): (ge)hieran hear

ellendædum (noun, feminine dative plural): ellendæd courageous deed, brave deed

uncuþes (adjective, neuter genitive singular): uncuþ unknown, strange Here: used as a noun

fela (pronoun + genitive) many

Wælsinges (personal name, neuter genitive singular): son of Wæls (i.e., Sigemund)  The

gewin (noun, neuter accusative singular): (ge)winn war, battle, strife

wide (adjective, masculine accusative plural): wid broad, wide

siðas (noun, masculine accusative plural): sið journey, adventure

þara (article, dative plural): se that

þe (indeclinable realitive particle): which, who, that

gumena (noun, masculine genitive plural): gumaman

bearn (noun, neuter nominative plural): child, son

gearwe (adverb): geare readily, clearly

ne (negative particle)

wiston (verb, past third person plural): witan know

fæhðe (noun, feminine accusative singular): fæðo feud, battle, enmity

ond (conjunction): and

fyrena (noun, feminine accusative plural): fyren crime, wickedness, sin

buton (preposition + dative): butan except

Fitela (personal name, nominative singular)

mid (prepostion): with

hine (pronoun, masculine accusative singular): he he

þonne (adverb): whenever

he (third person pronoun, masculine third singular): he

swulces (adjective, neuter genitive singular): swelc such

hwæt (pronoun, neuter accusative singular): hwa who, what, someone, something

secgan (verb, infinitive): tell

wolde (verb, past third person singular): willan wish, intend

eam (noun, masculine nominative singular): uncle

his (third person pronoun, masculine genitive singular): he he

nefan (noun, masculine dative singular): nefa nephew

swa (conjunction): as

hie (third person pronoun, nominative plural): he.  Here: they

a (adverb): always

wæron (verb, past third person plural): beon be

æt (preposition): at

niða (noun, masculine genitive plural): nið malice, hatred

gehwam (pronoun, masculine dative singular): (ge)hwa each

nydgesteallan (noun, masculine nominative plural): nydgestealla comrade in battle

hæfdon (verb, past third person plural): habban have

ealfela (adjective, accusative singular): a great many

eotena (noun, masculine genitive plural): eoten giant

cynnes (noun, neuter genitive singular): cynn kin

sweordum (noun, neuter dative plural): sweord sword

gesæged (verb, past participle): sægan slay, lay low

Sigemunde (personal name, dative singular)

gesprong (verb, third person singular): (ge)springan spring forth, arise

æfter (preposition): after

deaðdæge (noun, masculine dative singular):deaðdæg death-day

dom (noun, masculine nominative singular): fame

unlytel (adjective, masculine nominative singular): great, not little

syþðan (adverb or conjunction): syþþan after, when

wiges (noun, neuter genitive singular): wig battle

heard (adjective, masculine nominative singular): hard, bitter, fierce

wyrm (noun, masculine accusative singular): serpent, dragon

acwealde (verb, past third person singular): acwellan kill

hordes (verb, neuter genitive singular): hord hoard

hyrde (noun, masculine accusative singular): guardian   

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

under (preposition): under

harne (noun, masculine accusative singular): har grey, hoary

stan (noun, masculine accusative singular): stone

æþelinges (noun, masculine genitive singular): æþeling prince, noble one

bearn (noun, neuter nominative singular): child, son

ana (adjective, masculine nominative singular): an one, alone

geneðde (verb, past third person singular): neðan venture

frecne (noun, feminine accusative singular): daring, audacious

dæde (feminine accusative singular):dæd deed

ne (negative particle): not, nor

wæs (verb, past third person singular): beon be

him (third person pronoun, masculine dative singular): he he

Fitela (personal name, nominative singular)

mid (preposition): with

Hwæþre (adverb, conjunction): hwæþere however, nevertheless, yet, but  

him (third person pronoun, masculine dative singular): he he

gesælde (verb, past third person singular): (ge)sælan befall, chance, turn out favourably

ðæt (conjunction): þæt that

þæt (article, neuter nominative singular): se the, that.  Here: that

swurd (noun, neuter nominative singular): sweord sword

þurhwod (verb, past third person singular): þurhwadan pass through

wrætlicne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): wrætlic wonderous, strange

wyrm (noun, masculine accusative singular): serpent, dragon

þæt (conjunction): so that

hit (pronoun, neuter accusative singular): he it

on (preposition + dative): in

wealle (noun, masculine dative sinular): weal wall

ætstod (verb, past third person singular): ætstandan stand fixed, stop

dryhtlic (adjective, neuter nominative singular): lordly

iren (noun, neuter nominative singular): iron

draca (noun, masculine nominative singular): dragon

morðre (noun, neuter dative singular): morþor crime, torment, violence

swealt (verb, past third person singular): sweltan die, perish

Hæfde (verb, past third person singular): habban have

aglæca (noun, masculine nominative singular): combatant, awesome assailant

elne (noun, neuter dative singular): ellen courage, strength

gegongen (verb, past participle): gangan go

þæt (conjunction): so that

he (third person pronoun, masculine nominative singular): he

beahhordes (noun, neuter genitive singular): beahhord ring-hoard

brucan (noun, infinitive): enjoy, use, benefit from

moste (verb, subjunctive present third person singular): motan may, be allowed to

selfes (pronoun, masculine genitive singular): self self, himself

dome (noun, masculine dative singular): dom judgement

sæbat (noun, masculine accusative singular): seaboat

gehleod (verb, past third person singular): (ge)hladan load

bær (verb, past third person singular): beran bear

on (preposition): on

bearm (masculine accusative singular): bosom, lap

scipes (neuter genitive singular): scip ship

beorhte (adjective: feminine accusative plural): beorht bright

frætwa (noun, feminine accusative plural): frætwe ornament

Wælses (personal name, genitive singular)

eafera (noun, masculine nominative singular): eafora offspring

Wyrm (noun, masculine nominative singular): serpent, dragon

hat (adjective, masculine nominative singular): hot

gemealt (verb, past third person singular): (ge)meltan

to þæs þe conjunction: to (the point) where, until

fættum fahne decorated with gold (instrumental dative)

heardran hæle, healðegnas fand [see note]

folmum with hands (instrumental dative)

him of eagum stod from his eyes shone (him is a dative of possession)

mynte þæt he gedælde he intended to sever; (literally: he intended that he should sever)

anra gehwylces lif wið lice the life of each one from the body

him alumpen wæs wistfylle wen the expectation of feasting came over him; (literally: on him was befallen the expectation of the fill of feasting)

Ne wæs þæt wyrd þa gen suggested translations include it was not then fated, it was no longer destined, it was not by any means destined, by no means was it [Grendel’s] fortune.

þryðswyð the mighty one (functions as a noun here)

under færgripum gefaran wolde Mitchell and Robinson translate this as: would proceed with his sudden grips

forman siðe at the first opportunity

Mitchell and Robinson suggest: “Perhaps ‘forward [and] nearer he (Grendel) approached; he grasped then with his hand at the strong-hearted warrior in his resting place; the foe (Grendel) reached toward him (Beowulf) with his palm; with hostile intent he (Beowulf) quickly took (Grendel’s) arm and pressed against it.’…”

middangeardes eorþan sceata in the world, on the surface of the earth (adverbial genitive)  

no þy ær fram meahte he could none the sooner get away, he could not get away (verb of motion unexpressed)

Hyge wæs him his mind was (literally: mind was to him)

irenbendum with iron bands (instrumental dative)

searoþoncum with ingenuity (instrumental dative), skillfully

Þæs ne wendon ær...tobrecan meahte the wise men of the Scyldings did not before think this (þæs), that any man, by any ordinary means (mid gamete), might destroy it [the hall], excellent and adorned with bone.

niwe geneahhe often new; i.e., uncanny

Norðdenum stod atelic egesa in the North-Danes there arose a dreadful terror

anra gehwylcum to each one

þara þe of those who

þæt he fram Sigemundes secgan hyrde ellendædum that he had heard tell about the brave deeds of Sigemund

scriðan  The infinitive should be translated with the MnE present participle in this construction, i.e., came gliding.  The construction com + infinitive is used three times of Grendel’s movement towards Heorot: com...scriðan (came gliding, ll. 702-3), com ...gongan (came striding, ll. 710-11), and com...siðian (came stalking, l. 720).  Klaeber writes that “some enthusiasts have found the threefold bell-like announcement of Grendel’s approach a highly dramatic device.”  [Fr. Klaeber, Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, 3^rd ed., (Boston: Heath, 1941), p. 154.]  Bartlett uses this “justly admired” passage as her first illustration of the Incremental Pattern. [Adeline Courtney Bartlett, “Incremental Pattern” Larger Rhetorical Patterns in Anglo-Saxon Poetry, (Columbia University Press, 1935), pp. 49-61.]

wanre Cf MnE wan

sceadugenga is particularly appropriate to Grendel, who always attacks at night.  The word may also signify “Grendel’s outcast state, as one deprived of God’s light” [Greenfield, Stanley B., “Grendel's Approach to Heorot: syntax and poetry,” Old English Poetry: fifteen essays ed. Robert P. Creed, (Providence : Brown University Press 1967), 275-84, p 280.]

sceotend Cf MnE shoot

swæfon Klaeber writes: “How is it possible for the Geats to fall asleep in this situation?  Obviously, their failing enhances the achievement of Beowulf.  Or does this feature reflect ancient tales in which preliminary unsuccessful attempts to cope with the intruder are incident to the defenders’ failure to keep awake?  Cf. Panzer 96 f., 99, 267.” [Fr Klaeber, Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, 3^rd ed., (Boston: Heath, 1941), p. 154.]  Klaeber’s reference is to Friedrich Wilhem Panzer, Studien zur germanischen Sagengeschichte, (München, 1910), which links Beowulf to a category of märchen termed “Bear’s Son Tales”.  Martin Puhvel counters Klaeber’s suggestion with the proposal that the sleeping motif is derived from a Celtic tradition. [Martin Puhvel, Beowulf and Celtic Tradition, (Waterloo, Ont : Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1979), pp 94-95.]  More recent responses include Magnús Fjalldal, The long arm of coincidence: the frustrated connection between Beowulf and Grettis saga, (University of Toronto Press, 1998); and J. Michael Stitt, Beowulf and the bear's son: epic, saga, and fairytale in northern Germanic tradition. (London: Garland, 1992).  Mitchell and Robinson offer a different explanation for the sleeping warriors: “Ll. 705b-7 explain how it is that Beowulf’s warriors can fall asleep when in such peril: the Germanic maxim that ‘no man will die before the fates will it’ (a commonplace in the Old Icelandic sagas) enables the warriors to show manly indifference in the face of danger.” [Bruce Mitchell and Fred C Robinson, Beowulf, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), note to line 703]

hornreced For brief introduction to halls as literary symbols and physical, historical objects, see the section on Halls in “Archaeology and Beowulf” by Leslie Webster at IVC3 (pp. 186-187) in Mitchell and Robinson’s Beowulf.  This introduction includes helpful illustrations and suggestions for further reading.  Heorot is thought to correspond to a hall, called Hleiðargarðr in Old Norse, which stood near the present Danish village of Lejre.  Miscellaneous archaeological and historical information about this site can be found in John D. Niles (ed.), Beowulf and Lejre (Tempe, AZ: ACMRS, 2007).

scoldon is difficult to render accurately and fluently in translation because MnE ought and should are defective verbs.  Suggestions include: ought, should, were supposed, were obliged, and had the duty [to defend].  For more on this passage see Alain Renoir, ‘The Ugly and the Unfaithful: Beowulf through the Translator’s Eye’, Allegorica 3 (1978), 161-71.   

anum Beowulf is frequently characterized as solitary.  The word ana (‘alone’) is applied to Beowulf seven times (not including variant forms).  It is also applied to Grendel (l. 145) and to Sigemund (l. 888).

metod Meotod refers to the Christian God as maker/creator, as in Cædmon’s Hymn.  See Andy Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003) pp 130-132 for an brief overview of Christian elements in Beowulf and a substantial list of “book-length studies of the putative influence of Christian themes on Beowulf”.

scynscaþa  Andy Orchard writes: “the alliteration seems to demand the otherwise unattested scynscaþa, deriving from the noun scinna (‘sprite’), […] a designation which […] identifies Grendel with the wicked creatures of popular germanic legend, but the manuscript clearly reads synscaþa […] a word which may carry the double sense of ‘persistent destroyer’ or ‘sinful destroyer’.”  [Pride and Prodigies: studies in the monsters of the Beowulf-manuscript, (University of Toronto, 2003), p 36.] Katherine O’Brien O’Keefe disagrees with the emendation, and argues that the original reading contributes to one of the strengths of this scene: the ambiguity of the human and the monstrous [“Beowulf, lines 702b-836: transformations and the limits of the human.” Texas Studies in Literature and Language 23:4 (1981) 484-494]

under sceadu Mitchell and Robinson write: “In Germanic belief, as in classical and Christian, the underworld is a place of darkness”

bregdan Cf MnE braid

wraþum Cf MnE wrath

Grendel  Here the poet switches viewpoint from inside the hall to outside.  This switching back and forth is often described in cinematographic terms and praised for its effectiveness in producing suspense.  [e.g., Alan Renoir, 'Point of View and Design for Terror in Beowulf', Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 63 (1962), 154-67; and Andy Orchard, Pride and Prodigies: studies in the monsters of the Beowulf-manuscript, (University of Toronto, 2003), p 35.]

gongan  See note on scriðan (l 703).  Andy Orchard notes that “the threefold repetition of com marks off the passage into individual sections where we are progressively offered the perspective of the external narrator, the monster himself, and the people inside the hall.”  [Pride and Prodigies: studies in the monsters of the Beowulf-manuscript, (University of Toronto, 2003), p 36.]

yrre Cf MnE ire.  Grendel bears God’s anger because he is of the race of Cain.  The rich and complicated insular traditions about the monstrous descendants of Cain are the subject of the chapter “The Kin of Cain” in Andy Orchard, Pride and Prodigies: studies in the monsters of the Beowulf-manuscript, (University of Toronto, 2003), pp 58-85.

mynte Cf MnE meant

Wod Cf MnE wade

winreced and goldsele are in apposition.

goldsele Alvin A. Lee explores the symbolic contrast between the bright hall and the surrounding wastelands populated by “monsters of darkness and bloodshed who prey on the ordered, light-filled world man desires and clings to” [“Heorot and the Guest-Hall of Eden: Symbolic Metaphor and the Design of Beowulf.” The Guest-Hall of Eden: Four Essays on the Design of Old English Poetry, (Yale University Press: 1972), pp. 171-223.]  This motif is often likened to that in Bede, when King Edwin’s advisor recommends that he should listen to the message of the missionaries because:
“This is how the present life of man on earth, King, appears to me in comparison with that time which is unknown to us.  You are sitting feasting with your ealdormen and thegns in winter time; the fire is burning on the hearth in the middle of the hall and all inside is warm, while outside the wintry storms of rain and snow are raging; and a sparrow flies swiftly through the hall.  It enters in at one door and quickly flies out through the other.  For the few moments it is inside, the storm and wintry tempest cannot touch it, but after the briefest moment of calm, it flits from your sight, out of the wintry storm and into it again.  So this life of man appears but for a moment; wheat follows or indeed what went before, we know not at all.  If this new doctrine brings us more certain information, it seems right that we should accept it.” [Book II Chapter 13. Translation from Bede, The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Judith McClure and Roger Collins eds., (Oxford University Press, 2008) p. 95.]

heardran hæle, healðegnas fand  If accusative, then found worse luck [and] hall-thanes.  If dative then found hall-thanes with harder fortune.  Mitchell and Robinson also suggest with sterner greeting for heardran hæle.  For further discussion see Rosier, James L. 'What Grendel found: heardran hæle', Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 75 (1974), 40-49.

rinc  A value-neutral term usually applied to human beings, as below in l. 728.  Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe emphasises the importance of the application of normally human terms to Grendel in her article “Beowulf, Lines 702b–836: Transformations and the Limits of the Human,”
Texas Studies in Language and Literature 23 (1981) 484-494.  She writes (p 487): “Careful attention to the elements of the poet’s technique in lines 702b-836, to his deployment of epithets for Grendel, to his repetition of key words, and to his management of perspective reveals a hitherto unnoticed aspect of the Beowulf-Grendel combat, for as the poet brings Grendel from the moor, he brings him as well across the threshold of humanity.  Beowulf, in readying for combat, has prepared himself in another way; he disarms, leaving behind the appurtenances of the human, the adorned byrnie and decorated sword.  The struggle in Heorot shows us the limits of the human approached from either side as each adversary separates himself from those signs which help define him.”

siðian  See note on scriðan (l. 703).

dreamum  Prior to this point the word dream is used three times of gatherings in the hall where there is song, music, and story-telling (ll. 88, 99, and 487).  Grendel is drawn to and angered by the sound (ll. 86-90).  The impermanence of the victory of human endeavour over the dark, monstrous entropy of the world outside the hall is expressed in the Lay of the Last Survivor (ll. 2247-66), where the last man alive after the death of his people laments the end of seledream  (‘hall-joy’, l. 2252).

bedæled  From dæl (‘part, portion’) and dælan (‘share, dispense’); cf MnE deal (of cards)

sona Cf MnE soon

fyrbendum i.e., iron worked by smithing.  On the idea of doors being reinforced with iron, see Kevin Leahy, Anglo-Saxon Crafts (Stroud, 2003), especially the section on ‘Timber Buildings'.  For a more general account of the smiths' craft in Anglo-Saxon England, see Elizabeth Coatsworth and Michael Pinder, The Art of the Anglo-Saxon Goldsmith: fine metalwork in Anglo-Saxon England: its practice and practitioners, (Woodbridge, 2002).

hire i.e., the door, a feminine noun and object of æthran

æthran the first part of this word is illegible.  ASPR emends to æthran, Mitchell and Robinson emend to onhran, Wrenn [Beowulf, with the Finnsburg fragment (London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1953)], Swanton [Beowulf (Manchester University Press, 1997)], and Jack [Beowulf: a student edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994)] prefer gehran.  The meaning of all three verbs is similar.

bealohydig here functions as a noun: the evil-minded one

recedes muþan Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe writes: “But if Grendel assumes a human identity in proximity to the hall, the hall, tainted by Grendel’s evil presence, assumes something of him.  When Grendel enters Heorot, the kenning appleid to the door Grendel opens is, as Irving notes, a cannibalistic metaphor.  Grendel opens “recedes muþan” (l.724). the mouth of the hall.” [“Beowulf, Lines 702b–836: Transformations and the Limits of the Human,” Texas Studies in Language and Literature 23 (1981) 484-494, p 488.]

on fagne flor Fawler in Oxfordshire, four miles west of Woodstock and on the river Evenlode, seems to have derived its name from OE fag-flor, an etymology made more probable by the discovery of remains of Roman pavings at Fawler in the nineteenth century.  Clark Hall comments that “The Germanic invaders may have at times built their halls where Romano-British buildings had once stood.  Several other references to fag flor occur in O.E. boundary-charters.”  [John R. Clark Hall, Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment: A Translation into Modern English Prose, (London: Bradford and Dickens, 1950), p.187; and see A.H. Smith, English Place-Name Elements Part I A-IW, (Cambridge University Press, 1956), p.164.]

feond Cf MnE fiend

leoht unfæger Analogues to Grendel’s glowing eyes are found in Wonders of the East and Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, also in the Nowell Codex (Beowulf MS).  [Andy Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), p 25.] 

Geseah Manige, sibbegedriht and heap are parallel objects of geseah.

rinca manige A partative genitive.  “The partitive genitive represents the whole collection of things to which a particular thing or subset of things belongs, for example, ǣlċ þāra manna 'each of the men', ealra cyninga betst 'best of all kings'. As the translations with "of" suggest, Modern English has a roughly similar construction made with the preposition of; but Old English used the partitive genitive much more extensively than we use this partitive construction, for example, maniġ manna 'many men', twelf mīla lang 'twelve miles long'. Expect to find the partitive genitive used with any word that expresses number, quantity or partition.” [Peter S. Baker, Introduction to Old English (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), p. 37 (4.2.3).  Also available online: by Peter S. Baker The Electronic Introduction to Old English: An on-line analogue of Introduction to Old English, (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003) <http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/case.html#case:genitive>]

sibbegedriht Cf MnE sibling

magorinca Possibly related warriors (from maga, ‘relative, kin’) or young warriors (from mago, ‘young man, youth’).  Note the repetition of rinc from l. 728.

þa his mod ahlog Grendel is glad to see the previously abandoned hall full of potential victims; he does not realise (as the reader does) that he is about to become the victim.  Richard N. Ringler makes the case that dramatic irony drives this entire scene [“Him seo wen geleah: The Design for Irony in Grendel’s Last Visit to Heorot” Speculum 41 (1966), 49-67.]

aglæca The poet’s choice of terms emphasizes the curious kinship between the monsters who dwell in the dark and the heroes who go down into obscure places to fight them: the term aglæca is used by the Beowulf poet only to describe monsters (Grendel, his mother, the dragon, possibly the creatures in the mere) and the heroes Beowulf and Sigemund.  [See: Mark Griffith, “Some difficulties in Beowulf, lines 874-902: Sigemund reconsidered.” Anglo Saxon England 24 (1995) 11-41.]

wistfylle Grendel enacts a twisted parody of the purpose of the hall: he has seen men feasting in the hall, so he comes to the hall to feast on men.

wyrd Cf MnE weird, as in the Weird Sisters of Macbeth.

Þryðswyð Orchard writes that rhyme in Beowulf “is a key feature of such self-contained phrases as frod ond god (line 279a) [etc...]” and that “even individual compounds, such as the evidently tautologous þryðswyð (‘powerful in might’), lines 131a and 736b) or the equally perplexing foldbold (‘ground-building’), both of which are unique to the poem, have apparently been coined for their sheer playfulness” [Andy Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), p 66.]

Hygelac Beowulf’s uncle, lord of the Geats.  The relationship between mother’s brother and sister’s son is important in early Germanic literature, and features several times in Beowulf.  See Rolf H Bremmer, “The Importance of Kinship: Uncle and Nephew in Beowulf.” Amsterdamer Beitreage zur ealteren Germanistik 15 (1980), 22-38 and Stephen O. Glosecki, “Beowulf and the Wills: Traces of Totemism?” Philological Quarterly 78 (1999), 14-47.

aglæca Sometimes translated as monster, but also applied to Sigemund (l. 892) and Beowulf (ll. 159, 433, 732, 556).

slat Cf MnE slit

unwearnum Dative plural of wearn, 'hindrance', 'obstacle', which should be understood adverbially as 'eagerly', 'greedily'.

banlocan literally bone-locker

blod Mitchell and Robinson note that “Swallowing blood (the seat of the soul) was an abomination according to Christian writings before and during OE times.”

synsnædum The first element of this compound has been explained as either sin-, 'perpetual, permanent' (cf. syndolh, 817a) or sin, 'sinful morsels'. Jack [Beowulf: a student edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994)] argues persuasively for the latter interpretation, on the grounds that blood-drinking is especially proscribed in OE texts. For further discussion, see Fred C Robinson, 'Lexicography and Literary Criticism: a caveat', in James L. Rosier, ed., Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Meritt, (The Hague: Mouton, 1970), pp 99-110, especially pp 102-5; reprinted in The Tomb of Beowulf and other essays on Old English, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993) pp 143-6

gefeormod Orchard suggests that this is an instance of paronomasia, as feorm means both ‘sustenance’ and ‘disposal (of a corpse)’ A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), p 213.

fet ond folma the man is totally devoured, even down to his feet and hands.  Much later in the poem, he is identified as Hondscio (l. 2076).  His name is cognate to modern German Handschuh, (‘glove’, literally ‘hand-shoe’).  In the same scene, we learn for the first time about a glof (‘pouch’ or ‘glove’, l. 2085) that Grendel used to put his victims in.  The thematic significance of this punning motif is explored in an article by James L. Rosier, “The Uses of Association: Hands and Feasts in Beowulf,” PMLA 78 (1963), 8-14.  The same topic is reconsidered with reference to more recent scholarly work on “a poetics of dismemberment” in an article by Seth Lehrer: “Grendel's Glove” ELH 61:4, (Winter 1994), 721-751.  For more on playful and significant character-names in Beowulf see Andy Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), pp 172-173.

Mitchell and Robinson say: “The stated actions are clear, but it is not always clear which of the two combatants is the actor.  The confusion in the dark hall is mirrored in the language of the narrative.”

Sona þæt onfunde...to Heorute ateah (l.766b)  The conflict between Beowulf and Grendel is depicted as much as a battle of will as physical strength.  The actions of this passage are internal: realizing, fearing, intending, remembering.  (For further discussion see Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), p 192.)    

hyrde Cf MnE herd, as in shepherd. 

mette Mette and gemette (l. 757b) frame an Envelope Pattern—see note at reced hlynsode (l.770).

middangeardes cognate with Old Norse miðgarðr, Old High German mittilagart, Gothic midjungard.  Literally ‘middle enclosure’, it is often translated as ‘middle earth’.  It refers to ‘this world’ with various shades of meaning in different contexts.  In Gothic it is used to mean the known (Roman) world, as in Luke 2:1 (And it came to pass in those days, that there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be taxed).  In Old High German Muspilli, a poem about the end of the world, it is used to mean the earth as opposed to the sea or the sky (l. 54).  In Old English it is sometimes used to refer to the world of the men as opposed to heaven or hell.  In Old Norse, its use reflects pre-Christian mythology: it is used to differentiate the world of men as opposed to the dwelling-places of other beings (often conceived as arrayed on the world-tree, Yggdrasill).  It refers specifically to the encircling wall separating the world of men from Jǫtunheimr (the home of the Jǫtnar, giants), but metonymically refers to the whole world of men, just as Ásgarðr refers to the walled home of the group of gods called the Æsir (singular Ás).  The human word of miðgarðr is encircled by a great sea in which the Midgard Serpent (Miðgarðsormr or Jǫrmungandr), swims around the world and bites his own tail.  Þor (Thor) fishing for the Midgard Serpent is a common motif in Old Norse stories and pictures.  For a brief, general introduction to Old Norse cosmology/mythology see the introduction to Carolyne Larrington’s translation of The Poetic Edda (Oxford University Press, 1996).  For specific terms, see Rudolf Simek, Dictionary of Northern Mythology, (Cambridge: Brewer, 1993).  A translation of one version of Thor’s fishing expedition can be found on p.47 of Anthony Faulkes’ translation of Snorri Sturluson’s Edda (London: Everyman, 1995)—the episode begins on p. 37.  The episode is illustrated in several places, including the Altuna Runestone in Sweden and the Gosforth Cross in England.

no þy ær This phrase occurs six times in Beowulf (ll. 1502b, 2081a, 2160a, 2373a, 2466a) but has not been found elsewhere in Old English.  Mitchell and Robinson write: “Its meaning is ‘no sooner for/because of that’ and so ‘yet...not’.  The inst sg neut þy refers back to wat we have just been told.  So here we learn that Grendel’s fear did not enable him to get away faster.”

heolster Cf MnE holster

gemette See note at mette, l. 751a

Gemunde þa se goda Jack [Beowulf: a student edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994)] and other editors emend to Gemunde þa se modga ('then then brave [one] remembered') to avoid the m-alliteration falling on the finite verb gemunde.

æfenspræce Beowulf’s speech earlier in the evening in which he vowed to kill Grendel with his bare hands.  This speech is termed gylpworda (l. 675).  A gilp (verb gylpan) is a boast or vow, often made over drink.  For more on this convention in Old English and Old Norse literature, see Stefán Einarsson “Old English Beot and Old Icelandic Heitstrenging” PMLA 49:4 (Dec 1934), 975-993.

fingras burston Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe writes: “Whose fingers?  Cases have been made for both Grendel and for Beowulf.  I suggest that this ambiguity is intentional, unresolvable, and designed to prepare us for the merging of the hero and hostile one” [in lines 767-77].  [“Beowulf, Lines 702b–836: Transformations and the Limits of the Human,” Texas Studies in Language and Literature 23 (1981) 484-494, p 489.]

Eoten The word Eoten sometimes means ‘Jute’ but here it clearly means ‘giant’, cognate with Old Norse jǫtunn.  The association of Grendel with giants is appropriate to either a Germanic or Christian context.  In Norse literature giants are the particular enemies of the gods, and are depicted as dwelling in wild uninhabitable places like mountains or living beyond the boundaries of the world of men (their stronghold is called Útgarðar, ‘outer enclosure’).  (See note at l. 751 for sources on Norse mythology).  Like the jǫtnar, Grendel is a monstrous semi-human enemy who dwells in a marginal wasteland.  The biblical giants were thought to be descended from Cain, like Grendel, so the association also works in that context.  See Oliver Emerson, “Legends of Cain, Especially in Old and Middle English.” PMLA 21 (1906), 831-929 and  Andy Orchard, “The Kin of Cain.”  Pride and Prodigies: Studies in the Monsters of the Beowulf-Manuscript. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995),  pp. 58-85.

hearmscaþa Mitchell and Robinson suggest pernicious enemy and terrible ravager.  The first element, hearm, means harm or injury.  The second element, sceaða means an injurious person, criminal, one who causes harm, malefactor, warrior, or foe.  Cf MnE scathe.

sið...ateah The same idiom is found in Guthlac 301f and Genesis 2094.  Ateah is preterite with pluperfect force.

Dryhtsele Here the description of the fight turns from the perceptions and intentions of the two combatants to the effect of their struggle on their surroundings. 

dynede Cf MnE din.

ceasterbuendum Ceaster is most often used to refer to a city or walled town.  It derives from Latin castra (‘camp’, plural of castrum), an element which is preserved in modern place-names as -chester, or -caster.  The term was adopted into Old English during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain.  See OED chester, n.1.

ealuscerwen This word is a hapax legomenon and a major crux.  Mitchell and Robinson devote three and a half pages to the problem of its meaning [section IIIA12 or pp.167-171].  The contextual meaning is terror, distress, or panic.  The literal meaning is much disputed, and the way in which the literal meaning gives rise to the figurative is even more uncertain.  Ealu is either ‘ale’ or ‘good fortune’: it means ‘good fortune’ as an initial element of personal names; however, medoduscerwen, the first element of which means ‘mead’, is used in a similar sense to ealuscerwen in Andreas (l. 1526), which lends weight to (but does not prove) the case that ealu is ‘ale’.  Scerwen is either a pouring out or a taking away, probably deriving from the unattested verb *scerwan (‘deprive’ or ‘dispense’).  Mitchell and Robinson write that “this gives four possible meanings: ‘taking away of ale’, the ironic ‘dispensing of ale’, ‘taking away of good luck’, or ‘giving of good luck’.  Only the first three can be made to fit the context.  All three are plausible.  None can be proved either right or wrong.”  For further discussion see: G. V. Smithers, ‘Five Notes on Old English Texts’, English and Germanic Studies 4 (1951-2), 65-85; F. J. Heinemann, ‘Ealuscerwen-Meoduscerwen, the Cup of Death, and Baldrs Draumar’, Studia Neophilologica 55 (1983), 3-10; Hugh Magennis ‘The Cup as Symbol and Metaphor in Old English Literature’, Speculum 60 (1985), 517-36, especially pp 530-5; J. Rowland, ‘OE Ealuscerwen/Meoduscerwen and the Concept of “Paying for Meed”’, Leeds Studies in English n. s. 21 (1990), 1-12; Stephen O. Glosecki, ‘Beowulf 769: Grendel’s ale-share’ English Language Notes 25:1 (1987) 1-9.

remweardas a hapax legomenon, likened to healðegn (‘hall-retainer’, l. 142a).  Mitchell and Robinson note (at l. 142) that “both words are used ironically and may have been coined by the poet for the occasion.”

Reced hlynsode The passage bound by Dryhtsele dynede (l. 767) and Reced hlynsode (l. 770) is a simple example of the “Envelope Pattern” a name Adeline Bartlett applies to “any logically unified group of verses bound together by the repetition at the end of (1) words or (2) ideas or (3) words and ideas which are employed at the beginning.  Within the group there may be other intricate verbal relationships which may reinforce the Envelope scheme.” For a thorough explanation of this device, see Adeline Courtney Bartlett, “Envelope Pattern” Larger Rhetorical Patterns in Anglo-Saxon Poetry, (Columbia University Press, 1935), pp. 9-29.  See also Andy Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), p 82.

micel  The Old Norse cognate mikill (‘great’, ‘large’) gives us ‘mickle’ in modern place-names such as Micklegate in York.

fæger Cf MnE fair

he refers to winsele (l. 771b), a masculine noun, and enables the poet to liken the hall to a warrior in battle.  In 779a, hit uses natural gender to refer to the same antecedent.

feol The monster’s invasion of the hall threatens the boundaries dividing men from the ‘other’ outside.  The seriousness of the monster’s intrusion is expressed by the threat he presents to the physical structure of the hall itself.  The early 14^th-century Icelandic text Grettissaga includes scenes analogous to Beowulf’s fight with Grendel (at chapter 35) and Beowulf’s fights with Grendel’s mother (at chapters 65-66).  In the Norse text the destruction of the building (and particularly the liminal door-frame) is given greater emphasis.  See the translation by Denton Fox and Hermann Pálsson: Grettir’s Saga (University of Toronto, 1974).

Medubenc According to the poetry, the mead-bench is the location of the important ceremonies of Germanic society.  A person’s status in society is reflected by the place of their seat in the hall: Beowulf sits with Hroðgar’s sons after he is ‘adopted’ by him.  The mead-bench is the location of poetry, peace-weaving, and the giving of rings and weapons: all acts which reinforce social bonds.  The disturbance of the mead benches signifies the disturbance of the society, as in ll. 4-5: Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþene þreatum, / monegym mægþum meadosetla ofteah.

mine gefræge  Gefræge is related to frægnian, to ask (cf. Modern German fragan).  The phrase ‘I have heard say’ imagines our experience of the poem not as solitary reading but as hearing an oral performance.  The phrase also suggests oral composition because it is repeated: mine gefræge is a formulaic b-line, which also appears at ll. 74, 1011, 1197, and 2163.  In the first part of the 20^th century, studies were made of composition by illiterate singers (first Homeric verse, later contemporary Yugoslavian singers) which “demonstrated that the characteristic feature of all orally composed poetry is its totally formulaic character” (Magoun, p 446).  In 1953 Francis P Magoun applied this work to Anglo-Saxon poetry: Francis P. Magoun, Jr., “Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry” Speculum 28:3 (July 1953), 446-467. Since then the scholarly consensus has been that Anglo-Saxon poetry is more or less oral-formulaic.  The question that remains is how far removed the documented poems are from pure oral composition: it could be that the documented poems were composed orally and later recorded, and it could be that the documented poems were not composed orally at all but simply replicated stylistic features of earlier vernacular oral poetry.  The truth probably lies at a point between the two extremes that is different for each poem.  The repetive features which may have originated as a mnemonic for oral composition are used for more sophisticated purposes in much Anglo-Saxon poetry.  Andy Orchard writes: “We have already seen how the Beowulf poet uses the repetition and variation of sounds, words, and phrases frequently to lend both structure and texture to his text; but it can be seen time and again how repetition at other levels of discourse strongly supports the notion that the Beowulf poet also uses patterns of repeated and deliberately varied themes and scenes to provide the opportunity for his audience to make other, broader connections between disparate elements in the text,” and more succinctly, “parallels of diction and scene are used to associate characters and create links between apparently disparate scenes, so lending structure to the whole” Andy Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), pp 90-91, 83.

golde geregnad Klaeber suggests this phrase may imply that there were gold-embroidered covers for the mead-benches. [Fr. Klaeber, Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg. 3rd ed. (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1950).]

graman Cf. MnE grim.

wunnon Cf. MnE win

Þæs is the object of wendon, which takes the genitive.  It anticipates the noun clause beginning with þæt in l. 779.  For a thorough explanation of this type of sentence structure, see section 148 on “Recapitulation and Anticipation” in Mitchell and Robinson’s A Guide to Old English (Oxford: Blackwell); this begins on p. 66 in all recent editions. 

witan Related to verb witan ‘know’.  Beowulf and the monsters repeatedly confound the expecations of the Danes: the Scyldings are later ironically called snottre (‘wise’) and hwate (‘valiant’) when they misunderstand the bloody water and give Beowulf up for dead at the mere (ll. 1591-1605).  In historical sources, witan refers to the King’s counsellors: for example, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 1011 makes reference to se cyning and his witan (‘the king and his witan’) [Bruce Mitchell and Fred C. Robinson, A Guide to Old English 7th edition (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), p 227 (Text 7: Selections from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).]

Scyldinga descendants of Scyld: see the opening of the poem, (ll. 4-52).  For more one the peoples of Beowulf, see Elliot Van Kirk Dobbie, “The Geats, Swedes, and Danes”, (London: Routledge, 1953) Beowulf and Judith (Anglo Saxon Poetic Records IV), pp. xxxix-xliii

banfag Leslie Webster asks: “Some manuscript depictions of Insular gabled wooden structures [...] have projection cross members at the peak of the gable, rather like a pair of horns (figure 4).  Could this be an explanation of both horngēap and even of that term opaque to archaeological scrutiny, bānfāng (l. 780)?” [“Archaeology and Beowulf” in Mitchell and Robinson’s Beowulf, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998) section IVC3 (pp. 186-187).]

fæþm Cf. MnE fathom: a unit equal to the length of outstretched arms.

swaþule A hapax legomenon

of wealle from the wall or through the wall.  The struggle is heard even by those who can’t see it because they are sleeping in a different building or chamber.   

galan Cf. MnE (nightin)gale, less directly yell.          

gryreleoð, sang the likening of Grendel’s cries of pain to a song is ironic because it was the music in the hall that drew him to attack it.

sar Cf. MnE sore  

se þe manna wæs […] þysses lifes repeats almost verbatim the description of Beowulf at ll.196-7 (se wæs moncynnes mægenes strengest on þæm dæge þysses lifes).  Part of the difference could derive from a copying error: Orchard suggests that “the difference between lines 196b (mægenes strengest) and 789b (mægene strengest) is one that could certainly be explained mechanically either by haplography (s for ss) or dittography (ss for s).” [Andy Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003), p 55.]  Orchard further comments  (p. 240) on the appearance of this phrase at ll. 196-197: “the poet effectively circumscribes Beowulf’s power both in time and sphere of influence through alliteration of elements which do not normally carry either stress or alliteration: he was the strongest on that day of this life.  The poet repeats the phrase twice more in the battle between Beowulf and Grendel, using it once of each protagonist” [here, and of Grendel at l. 806].