Havelok (lines 2512-2855)

Þanne he was ded, þat Sathanas,
Sket was seysed al þat his was
In þe kinges hand ilk del —
Lond and lith and oþer catel —
And þe king ful sone it yaf
Ubbe in þe hond, wit a fayr staf,
And seyde, “Her ich sayse þe
In al þe lond, in al þe fe.”
Þo swor Havelok he sholde make,
Al for Grim, of monekes blake
A priorie to serven inne ay
Jesu Crist til Domesday,
For þe god he havede him don
Hwil he was povere and ivel o-bon.
And þer-of held he wel his oth,
For he it made, God it woth,
In þe tun þer Grim was graven,
Þat of Grim yet haves þe name.
Of Grim bidde ich namore spelle.
But wan Godrich herde telle,
Of Cornwayle þat was erl,
þat fule traytour, þat mixed cherl!
Þat Havelok was king of Denemark,
And ferde with him, strong and stark
Comen Engelond withinne,
Engelond al for to winne;
And þat she þat was so fayr,
Þat was of Engelond rith eir,
Was comen up at Grimesbi,
He was ful sorful and sori,
And seyde, "Hwat shal me to raþe?
Goddoth, I shal do slon hem baþe!
I shal don hengen hem ful heye
So mote ich brouke my rith eie,
But yif he of mi londe fle.
Hwat! Wenden he to deserite me?"
He dide sone ferd ut-bidde,
Þat al þat euere mouhte o stede
Ride or helm on heved bere,
Brini on bac, and sheld and spere,
Or ani oþer wepne bere,
Hand-ax, syþe, gisarm, or spere,
Or aunlaz and god long knif,
Þat als he lovede leme or lif,
Þat þey sholden comen him to,
‘With ful god wepne ye bere’, so
To Lincolne, þer he lay,
Of Marz þe seventenþe day,
So þat he couþe hem god þank;
And yif þat ani were so rank
Þat he þanne ne come anon,
He swor bi Crist and Seint Johan,
Þat he sholde maken him þral,
And al his ofspring forthwithal.
Þe Englishe þat herde þat,
Was non þat evere his bode sat;
For he him dredde swiþe sore,
So runcy spore, and mikle more.
At þe day he come sone
Þat he hem sette, ful wel o-bone,
To Lincolne with gode stedes,
And al þe wepne þat knith ledes.
Hwan he wore come, sket was þe erl yare
Ageynes Denshe men to fare,
And seyde, "Lyþes nu alle samen!
Have ich gadred you for no gamen,
But ich wile seyen you forþi.
Lokes hware here at Grimesbi
His uten-laddes here comen,
And haves nu þe priorie numen -
Al þat evere mithen he finde,
He brenne kirkes and prestes binde;
He strangleth monkes and nunnes boþe -
Wat wile ye, frend, her-offe rede?
Yif he regne þusgate longe,
He moun us alle overgange,
He moun us alle quic henge or slo,
Or þral maken and do ful wo
Or elles reve us ure lives
And ure children and ure wives.
But dos nu als ich wile you lere,
Als ye wile be with me dere.
Nimes nu swiþe forth and raþe
And helpes me and yuself baþe,
And slos upo þe dogges swiþe.
For shal I nevere more be bliþe,
Ne hoseled ben ne of prest shriven
Til þat he ben of londe driven.
Nime we swiþe and do hem fle
And folwes alle faste me!
For ich am he of al þe ferd
Þat first shal slo with drawen swerd.
Daþeyt hwo ne stonde faste
Bi me hwil hise armes laste!"
"Ye! lef, ye!" quoth þe erl Gunter;
"Ya!" quoth þe Erl of Cestre, Reyner.
And so dide alle þat þer stode
And stirte forth so he were wode.                                                  
Þo mouthe men se þe brinies brihte
On backes keste and lace rithe,
Þe helmes heye on heved sette.
To armes al so swiþe plette
That þei wore on a litel stunde
Greþet als men mithe telle a pund,
And lopen on stedes sone anon;
And toward Grimesbi, ful god won,
He foren softe bi þe sti
Til he come ney at Grimesbi.                                                          
Havelok, þat havede spired wel
Of here fare, everil del,
With all his ferd cam hem ageyn.
Forbar he noþer knith ne sweyn:
Þe firste knith þat he þer mette
With þe swerd so he him grette,
Forþ his heved of he plette -
Wolde he nouth for sinne lette.
Roberd saw þat dint so hende -
Wolde he nevere þeþen wende,
Til þat he havede anoþer slawen
With þe swerd he held ut drawen.
Willam Wendut his swerd ut drow,
And þe þredde so sore he slow
Þat he made upon þe feld
His lift arm fleye with þe swerd.
Huwe Raven ne forgat nouth
Þe swerd he havede þider brouth.
He kipte it up, and smot ful sore
An erl þat he saw priken þore
Ful noblelike upon a stede,
Þat with him wolde al quic wede.
He smot him on þe heved so
Þat he þe heved clef a-two.
And þat bi þe shudre-blade
Þe sharpe swerd let wade
Þoru þe brest unto þe herte;
Þe dint bigan ful sore to smerte,
Þat þe erl fel dun anon
Al so ded so ani ston.
Quoth Ubbe, "Nu dwelle ich to longe!"
And let his stede sone gonge
To Godrich, with a god spere,
Þat he saw anoþer bere;
And smot Godrich and Godrich him,
Hetelike with herte grim,
So þat he boþe felle dune
To the erþe, first þe croune.
Þanne he woren fallen dun boþen,
Grundlike here swerdes he ut drowen,
Þat weren swiþe sharp and gode,
And fouhten so þei woren wode
Þat þe swot ran fro þe crune
To the fet right þere adune.
Þer mouthe men se two knicthes bete
Ayþer on oþer dintes grete,
So þat with þe alþerleste dint
Were al to-shivered a flint.
So was bitwenen hem a fiht
Fro þe morwen ner to þe niht,
So þat þei nouth ne blunne
Til þat to sette bigan þe sunne.
Þo yaf Godrich þorw þe side
Ubbe a wunde ful unride,
So þat þorw þat ilke wounde
Havede ben brouth to þe grunde
And his heved al of slawen,
Yif God ne were and Huwe Raven,
Þat drow him fro Godrich awey
And barw him so þat ilke day.
But er he were fro Godrich drawen,
Þer were a þousind knihtes slawen
Bi boþe halve and mo ynowe,
Þer þe ferdes togidere slowe,
Þer was swilk dreping of þe folk
Þat on þe feld was nevere a polk
Þat it ne stod of blod so ful
Þat the strem ran intil þe hul.
Þo tarst bigan Godrich to go
Upon þe Danshe and faste to slo
And forthrith, also leun fares
Þat nevere kines best ne spares,
Þanne his gon, for he garte alle
Þe Denshe men biforn him falle.
He felde browne, he felde blake,                                                  
Þat he mouthe overtake.
Was nevere non þat mouhte þave
Hise dintes, noyþer knith ne knave,
Þat he felde so dos þe gres
Biforn þe syþe þat ful sharp es.                                                    
Hwan Havelok saw his folk so brittene
And his ferd so swiþe littene,
He cam drivende upon a stede,
And bigan til him to grede,
And seyde, "Godrich, wat is þe,
Þat þou fare þus with me
And mine gode knihtes slos?
Sikerlike, þou misgos!
Þou wost ful wel, yif þu wilt wite,
Þat Aþelwold þe dide site
On knes and sweren on messe bok,
On caliz and on pateyn hok,
Þat þou hise douhter sholdest yelde,
Þan she were wimman of elde,
Engelond everil del.
Godrich þe erl, þou wost it wel!
Do nu wel withuten fiht
Yeld hire þe lond, for þat is rith.
Wile ich forgive þe þe lathe,
Al mi dede and al mi wrathe,
For I se þu art so with
And of þi bodi so god knith."
"Þat ne wile ich neveremo,"
Quoth erl Godrich, "for ich shal slo
Þe, and hire forhenge heye.
I shal þrist ut þi rith eye
Þat þou lokes with on me,
But þu swiþe heþen fle!"
He grop þe swerd ut sone anon,
And hew on Havelok ful god won,
So þat he clef his sheld on two.
Hwan Havelok saw þat shame do
His bodi þer biforn his ferd,
He drow ut sone his gode swerd,
And smote him so upon þe crune
Þat Godrich fel to þe erþe adune.
But Godrich stirt up swiþe sket -
Lay he nowth longe at hise fet -
And smot him on þe sholdre so
Þat he dide þare undo
Of his brinie ringes mo
Þan þat ich kan tellen fro,
And woundede him rith in þe flesh,
Þat tendre was and swiþe nesh,
So þat þe blod ran til his to.
Þo was Havelok swiþe wo,
Þat he havede of him drawen
Blod and so sore him slawen.
Hertelike til him he wente
And Godrich þer fulike shente,
For his swerd he hof up heye,
And þe hand he dide of fleye
Þat he smot him with so sore -
Hw mithe he don him shame more?
Hwan he havede him so shamed,
His hand of plat and ivele lamed,
He tok him sone bi þe necke
Als a traitour, daþeit who recke!
And dide him binde and fetere wel
With gode feteres al of stel,
And to þe quen he sende him,
Þat birde wel to him ben grim,
And bad she sholde don him gete
And þat non ne sholde him bete,
Ne shame do, for he was knith,
Til knithes haveden demd him rith.
Þan þe Englishe men þat sawe,
Þat þei wisten, heye and lawe,
Þat Goldeboru þat was so fayr
Was of Engelond rith eyr,
And þat þe king hire havede wedded,
And haveden been samen bedded,
He comen alle to crie "Merci,"
Unto þe king at one cri,
And beden him sone manrede and oth
Þat he ne sholden, for lef ne loth,
Neveremore ageyn him go,
Ne ride, for wel ne for wo.
Þe king ne wolde nouth forsake
Þat he ne shulde of hem take
Manrede þat he beden and ok
Hold oþes sweren on þe bok.
But or bad he þat þider were brouth
Þe quen for hem swilk was his þouth
For to se and for to shawe,
Yif þat he hire wolde knawe -
Þoruth hem witen wolde he
Yif þat she aucte quen to be.
Sixe erles weren sone yare                       
After hire for to fare.                                                              
He nomen onon and comen sone,
And brouthen hire, þat under mone
In al þe werd ne havede per
Of hendeleik, fer ne ner.
Hwan she was come þider, alle
Þe Englishe men bigunne falle
O knes, and greten swiþe sore,
And seyden, "Levedi, Kristes ore
And youres! We haven misdo mikel
Þat we ayen you have be fikel,
For Englond auhte for to ben
Youres, and we youre men.
Is non of us, yung ne old,
Þat he ne wot þat Aþelwold
Was king of þis kunerike
And ye his eyr, and þat þe swike
Haves it halden with mikel wronge -
God leve him sone to honge!"
Quot Havelok, "Hwan þat ye it wite,
Nu wile ich þat ye doune site;
And after Godrich haves wrouht,
Þat haves in sorwe himself brouth,
Lokes þat ye demen him rith,
For dom ne spareth clerk ne knith,
And siþen shal ich understonde
Of you, after lawe of londe,
Manrede and holde oþes boþe,
Yif ye it wilen and ek rothe."
Anon þer dune he hem sette,
For non þe dom ne durste lette
And demden him to binden faste
Upon an asse swiþe unwraste,
Andelong, nouht overþwert,
His nose went unto þe stert
And so to Lincolne lede,
Shamelike in wicke wede,
And, hwan he come unto þe borw,
Shamelike ben led þer þoru,
Bi souþe þe borw unto a grene,
Þat þare is yet, als I wene,
And þere be bunden til a stake,
Abouten him ful gret fir make,
And al to dust be brend rith þere.
And yet demden he þer more,
Oþer swikes for to warne:
Þat hise children sulde þarne
Everemore þat eritage
Þat his was, for hise utrage.
Hwan þe dom was demd and seyd,
Sket was þe swike on þe asse leyd,
And led huntil þat ilke grene
And brend til asken al bidene.
Þo was Goldeboru ful bliþe -
She þanked God fele syþe
Þat þe fule swike was brend
Þat wende wel hire bodi have shend;
And seyde, "Nu is time to take
Manrede of brune and of blake,
Þat ich se ride and go,
Nu ich am wreke of mi fo."
Havelok anon manrede tok
Of alle Englishe on þe bok
And dide hem grete oþes swere
Þat he sholden him god feyth bere
Ageyn hem alle þat woren lives
And þat sholde ben born of wives.
þanne(adverb): then; [possibly] when
sket(adverb): soon, quickly
seysed(seisen, verb, past participle): seize, confiscate
in(preposition): into
ilk(ech, pronoun): each, every
del(noun): part, bit
lond(noun): land
lith(noun): estate, household
catel(noun): property
ful(adverb): very
sone(adverb): soon
yaf(yeven, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): give
hond (hond(e, noun): hand
wit (with, preposition): with
fayr(fair, adjective): handsome
staf(noun): staff
her(adverb): hereby, now
ich(pronoun): I
sayse(seisen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): enfeoff, give legal rights of possession
þe(ye,pronoun): thee, you
in(preposition): of
in(preposition): of
fe(noun): property
Þo (adverb): then
swor (sweren, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): take an oath, promise
sholde (shulen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): [auxiliary verb expressing future intention; ‘would’.]
make (maken, verb, infinitive): found, establish
al (adverb): entirely
monekes (monk, noun, plural): monk
blake (blak, adjective): black
priorie (noun): priory, monastery
seruen (verb, infinitive): worship
inne (adverb): in
ay(ai, adverb): eternally, for ever
til (preposition): until
for (preposition): because of, in exchange for
god (noun): good
havede(haven, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): [an auxiliary verb, here giving its main verb (‘don’) a pluperfect sense]
don (verb, past participle): do, perform (an action)
hwil(while, conjunction): while
povere(povre, adjective): destitute
ivel (adjective): wretched
o-bone (adjectival phrase, compound of o, preposition, and boun, adjective [functioning here as a noun]): of personal circumstances
þer-of(ther-of, adverb): regarding this matter
held(holden, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): keep
wel (adverb): well, properly, virtuously
oth (noun): oath, solemn promise
woth(witen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): know
tun (noun): town
þer (adverb): where
graven (verb, past participle) bury [but see note]
yet (adverb): still, to this day
haves(haven, verb, 3rd person present singular indicative): have, bear
bidde(bidden, verb, 1st person present singular indicative): request or propose [see note]
ich (pronoun), I
namore(nomore, adverb): no longer
spelle(spellen, verb, infinitive): narrate, tell (a story)
wan (whanne, conjuction): when
herde (heren, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): hear
telle (tellen, verb, infinitive): tell
Cornwayle (noun): Cornwall
þat (relative pronoun): who
erl (noun): high-ranking nobleman
fule(foul, adjective): sinful, ignoble, guilty
traytour(traitour, noun): traitor, one who is guilty of civic treason, evildoer
mixed (past participle used adjectivally): filthy
cherl (noun): ignoble, low-born person; not a member of the nobility
ferde (noun): army
stark (adjective): strong, resilient
comen(comen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): arrive, come
withinne (preposition): into
for (conjuction): in order that
winne(winnen, verb, infinitive): seize, conquer through military action
þat (that, conjunction): that
þat (that, relative pronoun): who
fayr (fair, adjective): beautiful, fine
þat (that, relative pronoun): who
rith (right, adjective): rightful, true
eir (heir, noun): heir
comen (comen, verb, past participle): arrived, landed
up (preposition): [see note]
ful (adverb): very
sorful (sorweful,adjective): angry, distressed
sori (adjective): vexed, upset
shal (shulen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): will
me (dative pronoun): for/to me [see idiom note]
to (preposition): regarding (see idiom note)
raþe (rath, noun): counsel (see idiom note)
Goddoth (interjection): certainly, truly
shal (shulen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): will
do (don, verb, infinitive): cause, make happen
slon (slen, verb, passive infinitive): kill
hem (pronoun): them
baþe (bothe, adjective): both
don (verb, infinitive): make, cause
hengen (verb, passive infinitive): hang
hem (pronoun): them
ful (adverb): very
heye(heigh, adjective): high
so (adverb): in this way
mote (moten, verb, 1st person present subjunctive singular): to be able, allowed
brouke (brouken, verb, infinitive): enjoy the use of, have the benefit of
rith (right, adjective): right [i.e., the relative direction]
eie (noun): eye
he (pronoun): (here) they
of (preposition): from
londe (lond, noun): country, land
fle (flen, verb, 3rd person present subjunctive singular): flee
Hwat! (what, interjection): [here, an interjection expressing rhetorical surprise]
Wenden (wenen, verb, 3rd person present indicative plural): expect, hope, anticipate
deserite (deseriten,verb, infinitive): dispossess, deprive [someone] of an inheritance
dide (don, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): [see note]
sone (adverb): immediately, straightaway
ferd (ferd(e, noun): army, body of men
ut-bidde (outbidden, verb, passive infinitive): raise, summon
þat (that, conjunction): that [see note]
al (noun): anyone
þat (relative pronoun): who
euere (ever, adverb): (here) an intensifying adverb; ‘in any way’ [see note]
mouhte (mouen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): be able to, capable of
o (preposition): on
stede  (noun): steed, war-horse
ride (riden,verb, infinitive): ride
helm (noun): helmet
heved (hed, noun): head
bere (beren, verb, infinitive): wear
brini (brinie, noun): mail-coat, hauberk
bac (bak, noun): back
sheld (noun): shield
spere (noun): spear
ani (adjective): any
oþer (other, adjective): other
wepne (wepen, noun): weapon
hand-ax (compound of hand, noun, and ax(e, noun): one-handed axe; hatchet
syþe (sithe, noun): war-scythe; weapon with a curved blade
gisarm (gisarme, noun): halberd
aunlaz (anelas, noun): two-edged dagger
knif (noun): knife
als (as, conjunction): just as
he (pronoun): they
lovede (loven, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): love, be fond of
leme (lim, noun): limb, [and by synecdoche] body, physical being
lif (noun): life, earthly existence
sholden (shulen, verb, 3rd person present indicative plural): be obliged to
comen (verb, infinitive): come
ful (adverb): sufficiently, very
wepne (wepen, noun): weapon
ye (pronoun): you (plural)
bere (beren, verb, 3rd person present indicative plural): carry
so (adverb): in this (aforesaid) way [see note]
þer (wher, adverb): where
lay (lien, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): be encamped
Marz (march(e, noun): March
seventenþe (sevententhe, adjective): seventeenth
he (pronoun): he
couþe (connen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): be able to
god (adjective): good, benevolent
þank (thank, noun): gratitude  
ani (adjective): anyone
so (adverb): to such a degree
rank (adjective): rebellious, headstrong
þanne (thanne, adverb): at that time
ne (conjunction): not
come (comen, verb, infinitive): arrive, come, turn up
anon (an-on, adverb): immediately
swor (sweren, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): swear, vow
sholde (shulen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): [modal auxiliary expressing futurity; ‘would’]
maken (verb, infinitive): make, turn into
þral (thral, noun): slave
ofspring (noun): offspring, descendants, progeny
forthwithal (forth-with-al, adverb): together with
Englishe (English, plural noun): English people
herde (heren, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): hear
non (pronoun): none
evere (ever, adverb): in any way, by any means, at all
bode (bod, noun): command, edict
sat (at-sitten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): resist, oppose
he (pronoun): they
dredde (dreden, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): fear
swiþe(swithe,adverb): very
sore (adverb): to a distressing degree, sorely, very much
so (adverb): as, in the same way that
runcy (rounci, noun): horse, nag
spore (noun): spur
mikle (muchel, adjective), very much, a great deal
he (pronoun): they
come (comen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): arrive [see note]
sone (adverb): quickly, immediately
sette (setten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): appoint, ordain, specify
ful (adverb): very
o-bone (adjectival phrase, compound of o, preposition, and boun, adjective [here, noun]): arrayed, attired [see note]
stedes (stede, noun, plural): steed, war-horse
wepne (wepen, noun, plural ): weapon
knith (knight, noun): knight
ledes (leden, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): carry, wear
hwan (whanne, conjunction): when
wore (ben, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): be
come (comen, past participle): come
sket (skete, adverb): quickly
yare (adjective): eager, keen, ready
ageynes (ayen(e)s, preposition): against
Denshe (Danish, adjective): Danish
fare (faren, verb, infinitive): attack
lyþes (listen, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): listen, hear
nu (nou, adverb): now
samen (adverb): together
gadred (gaderen, verb, past participle): gather, summon, muster, assemble
gamen (game, noun): game, festivity, sport
seyen (seien, verb, infinitive): tell, explain
forþi (for-thi,conjunction): for what reason, on what account
lokes (loken, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): see, know
uten (outen, adjective): foreign
laddes (ladde, plural noun): men [derogatory]
comen (3rd person past indicative plural): come
haves (haven, 3rd person present indicative singular): have
numen (nimen, past participle): take, plunder
evere (ever, adverb): in any way, at all
mithen (mouen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): might, can
brenne (brennen,verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): burn
kirkes (chirche,noun, plural): church
prestes (prest, noun, plural): priest
binde (binden, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): imprison, confine
strangleth (stranglen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): strangle, choke, kill
monkes (monk, noun, plural): monk
nunnes (nonne, noun, plural): nun
her-offe (her-of, adverb): concerning this matter
rede (reden, verb, 2nd person present indicative singular): advise, counsel
regne (regnen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): continue, prevail
þusgate (thus,adverb): in this way [see idiom note]
longe (adverb): for a long time
moun (mouen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): be able to
overgange (overgangen, verb, infinitive): overcome
quic (quik, adjective): alive
henge (hongen, verb, infinitive): hang
slo (slen, verb, infinitive): kill, slay
elles (adverb): otherwise
reve (reven, verb, infinitive): deprive [someone] of [something]
ure (our(e, pronoun): our
dos (don, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): do
als (as, conjunction): as
lere (leren, verb, infinitive): tell, instruct
als (as, conjunction): so that
with (preposition): in the estimation of
dere (adjective): excellent, worthy
nimes (nimen, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): go, depart, get underway
swiþe (swith(e, adverb): quickly
forth (adverb): onwards, away
raþe (rath(e, adverb): immediately
helpes (helpen, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): help, aid, assist
yuself (youself, pronoun): yourselves, you yourselves
baþe (bothe, adverb): both
slos (slen, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): strike, do battle
upo (preposition): against
dogges (dogge, plural noun): [literally] dogs; [figuratively] wretches, contemptible creatures
swiþe (swith(e, adverb): at once
bliþe (blithe, adjective): happy, joyful; in a state of Christian bliss
ne (conjunction): neither
hoseled (houselen, verb, past participle): administer the Sacrament
ben (verb, infinitive): (here) have something done
ne (conjunction): nor
prest (noun): priest, member of the clergy
shriven (shriven, verb, past participle): absolve
of (preposition): from
londe (lond noun): country, land
driven (driven, verb, past participle): banish, expel
nime(nimen, verb, 1st person present subjunctive plural): get underway
do (don, verb, 1st person present subjunctive plural): make
fle (flen, verb, infinitive): flee, retreat
folwes (folwen, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): follow
faste (fast(e, adverb): close by; firmly, inseparably
ferd (ferd(e, noun): army, body of men
slo (slen, verb, infinitive): kill
drawen (drauen, verb, past participle used adjectivally): unsheathe, draw [a weapon]
swerd (sword, noun): sword, blade
daþeyt (daþeit, noun/interjection): a curse on [him]!; may [he] come to grief!
hwo (who, pronoun): whoever
stonde (stonden, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): endure, stand
fast (fast(e, adverb): immovable, strongly, stoutly
hwil (while, conjunction): for as long as
armes (armes, plural noun): weapons
laste (lasten, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): endure, remain serviceable
ye (interjection): yes!
lef (noun): lord
quoth (quethen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): say
erl (noun): high-ranking nobleman
ya (ye, interjection): yes!
stode (stonden, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): stand
stirte (sterten, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): rush
forth (adverb): forward
so (conjunction): as though
he (pronoun): they
wode (wod(e, adjective): mad
þo (tho, adverb): then
mouthe (mouen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): be able to
se (sen, verb, infinitive): see
brinies (brinie, plural noun): mail-coat, hauberk
brihte (bright, adjective): bright, shining
keste (casten, verb, past participle): wear, don, fling across
lace (lasen, verb, past participle): lace up, fasten
rithe (right(e, adverb): properly, correctly
helmes (helm, plural noun): helmet
heye (heighe, adverb): high up
heved (hed, noun): head
sette (setten, past participle): set, place, wear
armes (armes, plural noun): arms, weapons
swiþe (swith(e, adverb): quickly
plette (platten, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): rush, hasten, hurry
wore (ben, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): be
litel (adjective): short, brief
stunde (stound(e, noun): length of time
greþet (greithen, verb, past participle): prepare, make ready
als (as, conjunction): just as, in the same way that
mithe (mouen, verb, 3rd person present indicative plural): be able to
telle (tellen, verb, infinitive): count out
pund (pound(e, noun): pound (sterling)
lopen (noun): leap, jump
stedes (stede, plural noun): war-horse
sone (adverb): immediately, quickly
anon (an-on, adverb): immediately, at once
toward (preposition): in the direction of
ful (adverb): very
god (adjective): great
won (won(e, noun): abundance
he (pronoun): they
foren (faren, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): travel, journey, advance
softe (soft(e, adverb): slowly, gradually, at an easy pace
sti (sti(e, noun): road
til (conjunction): until
come (comen, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive plural): arrive
ney (neigh, adverb): nearly
at (preposition): in
þat (relative pronoun): who
havede (haven, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): have
spired (spiren, verb, past participle): inquire, learn through inquiry
wel (adverb): fully, carefully, prudently
of (preposition): concerning
here (pronoun): their
fare (noun): journey
everil (everi, adjective): every
del (noun): bit, part, facet
ferd (ferd(e, noun): army
cam (comen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): come
hem (pronoun): them
ageyn (ayen, preposition): towards
forbar (forberen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): spare, show mercy towards
he (pronoun): he
noþer (nouther, conjunction): neither
knith (knight, noun): knight
ne (conjunction): nor
sweyn (swein, noun): squire, knight’s attendant, common soldier
firste (first, adjective): first
mette (meten): confront, encounter, meet in battle
swerd (sword, noun): sword
so (adverb): in the aforesaid manner
grette (greten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): attack, strike [see note]
forþ  (forth, adverb): away, off, a good distance
of (adverb): off
plette (platten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): chop, cut
wolde (willen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): want, intend
nouth (nought, adverb): not at all
for (preposition): for the sake of
sinne (noun): see note
lette (leten, verb, infinitive): disengage, relinquish, stop
dint (noun): combat, battle
hende (hend(e, adjective): handy, skilful, knightly
þeþen (thethen, adverb): from there
wende (wenden, verb, infinitive): go, depart
slawen (slen, verb, past participle): slay, kill
ut (out(e, preposition): out
drawen (drauen, verb, past participle): draw, unsheathe
drow (drauen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): draw, unsheathe
þredde (thrid, adjective): third
sore (adverb): violently, injuriously, severely
slow (slen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): slay, kill
feld (noun): field of battle
lift (adjective): left
fleye (flien, verb, infinitive): fly
swerd (sword, noun): sword
forgat (foryeten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): forget, disregard
nouth (nought, adverb): not at all
þider (thider, adverb): to that place
brouth (bringen, verb, past participle): bring
kipte (kippen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): seize, snatch up, draw
smot (smiten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): smite, strike, hit
priken (verb, infinitive): ride, gallop
þore (there, adverb): there [see note]
noblelike (nobleli, adverb): vigorously, boldly, in a knightly manner
þat (relative pronoun): who
wolde (willen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): want, intend
al (adverb): very
quic (quikli, adverb): vigorously
wede (weden, verb, infinitive): charge madly, attack furiously
so (adverb): with the consequence that
clef (cleven, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): split, cleave apart,
a-two (atwo, adverb): into two parts
bi (preposition): next to, near
shuldre-blade (shulder-blad(e, noun): shoulder-blade, shoulder
sharpe (sharp, adjective): sharp, keen
let (leten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): cause, make happen
wade (waden, verb, infinitive): pierce, penetrate, cut
þoru (thurgh, preposition): through, right through
brest (noun): chest, or possibly breastplate
unto (preposition): to, into
herte (noun): heart
dint (noun): blow, stroke, wound
bigan (biginnen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): begin, start
smerte (smerten, verb, infinitive): hurt, ache
þat (conjunction): with the result that, to the extent that
fel (fallen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): fall
dun (doun, adverb): down
anon (an-on, adverb): immediately
so (adverb [here, conjunction]): as
ded (adjective): dead, lifeless
ani (adjective): any, a
ston (noun): stone, piece of rock
Quoth (quethen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): say
nu (nou, adverb): now [but see note]
dwelle (dwellen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): delay, linger
to (adverb): excessively
longe (adverb): long, for a long time
let (leten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): cause, make happen
sone (adverb): immediately, straightaway
gonge (gangen, verb, infinitive): go
to (preposition): toward
god (adjective): fine, excellent
spere (noun): spear
anoþer (other, pronoun): the other one, the second of two
bere (beren, verb, infinitive): carry, wield
hetelike (heteli, adverb): cruelly, violently
herte (noun, plural): heart
grim (adjective): fierce, resolute
he (pronoun): they
felle (fallen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): fall
dune (doun, adverb): down, downward
erþe (erthe, noun): earth, ground
first (adverb): first
croune (couroune, noun): top of the head, skull
þanne (thanne, adverb): when
he (pronoun): they
woren (ben, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive plural): [auxiliary verb]
fallen (verb, past participle): fall
grundlike (groundli, adverb): violently, powerfully
here (pronoun): their
drowen (drauen, past participle): draw, unsheathe
weren (ben, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): be
gode (god, adjective): fine, excellent
fouhten (fighten, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): fight, engage in combat
so (adverb): as if
þat (conjunction): with the result that
swete (swet(e, noun): sweat, (possibly), blood
ran (rennen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): run, gush, drip
fro (from, preposition): from
crune (couroune, noun): top of the head
fet (fot, noun, plural): foot
right (right(e, adverb): fully, right
þere (ther, adverb): there
adune (adoun, adverb): downward
þere (ther, adverb): there, in that place
mouthe (mouen, verb, 3rd person present indicative plural): be able to
se (sen, verb, infinitive): see, behold
knicthes (knight, noun, plural): knight
bete (beten, verb, infinitive): pummel, buffet, smite
ayþer (either, pronoun): each one
oþer (other, pronoun): the other
dintes (dint, noun, plural): blows, strokes
grete (gret, adjective): great, powerful, strong
with (preposition): from, by
alþerleste (compound of alder-, prefix, and leste, adjective): least of all, smallest of all
were (ben, verb, 3rd person present subjunctive singular): be
al (adverb): entirely, completely
to-shivered (toshiveren, verb, past participle): shatter
flint (noun): hard stone, rock
so (adverb): thus, in the aforesaid manner
bitwenen (bitwene, preposition): between
hem (pronoun): them
fiht (fight, noun): struggle, fight, single combat
fro (from, preposition): from [a certain time]
morwen (morn, noun): morning, dawn, daybreak
ner (preposition): near [in time]
niht (night, noun): night, nightfall
nouth (nought, adverb): not at all
blunne (blinnen, verb, past participle): cease, stop
sette (setten, verb, infinitive): go down, set
bigan (biginnen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): begin, start
sunne (sonne, noun): sun
þo (tho, adverb): then, at that time
yaf (yeven, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): give
þorw (thurgh, preposition): through, right through
side (noun): side (of the human body); between the shoulder and the waist
wunde (wound, noun): wound, gash, cut
unride (adjective): violent, savage, frenzied
þorw (preposition): on account of
ilke (pronoun): same
havede (haven, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive singular): [past auxiliary]
ben (verb, infinitive): be
brouth (bringen, verb, past participle): carry, bring
of (of-, prefix): off
slawen (slen, verb, past participle): strike
were (ben, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive singular): be
þat (that, relative pronoun): who
drow (drauen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): drag
fro (from, prepostion): from
awey (awei, adverb): away
barw (berwen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): protect
so (adverb): in this way
er (conjunction): before
were (ben, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive singular): be
drawen (drauen, verb, past participle): take away
þer (ther, adverb): there, in that place
þousind (thousand, adjective): thousand
slawen (slen, verb, past participle): kill
bi (preposition): on
halve (half, noun, plural): side, opposing side
mo (adjective): more
ynowe (inough, adverb): abundantly, to a great degree
ferdes (ferd, noun, plural): army
togidere (togeder, adverb): together
slowe (slen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): do battle, engage in combat, cause destruction, make war
swilk (swich, adjective): such, so great,
dreping (gerund, from drepen, verb): killing
folk (plural noun): people
feld (noun): field of battle
nevere (never, adverb): not at all, in no way
polk (polk(e, noun): puddle
ne (adverb): not
stod (standen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): well up
of (preposition): with
blod (noun): blood
ful (adjective): full
strem (streme, noun): flow
intil (until, preposition): as far as
hul (noun): valley, low ground [see note]
þo (tho, adverb): then, at that time
tarst (erest, adverb): first
go (gon, verb, infinitive): move
upon (preposition): against
faste (fast(e, adverb): vigorously, severely
slo (slen, verb, infinitive): kill, engage in combat
forthrith (forth-right, adverb): straightaway
also (adverb): like, in the same way that
leun (lioun, noun): lion
fares (faren, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): behave, do; [perhaps] attack
kines (kin, noun, genitive singular): kind, sort
best (best(e), noun): beast, animal
spares (sparen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): spare, leave undamaged
þanne (thanne, adverb):
his (compound of he, pronoun, and ben, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): ‘he is’
gon (verb, past participle): go
garte (geren, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): cause, make happen
biforn (biforen, adverb): in front of
falle (fallen, verb, infinitive): fall, die
felde (fellen, verb, past participle): kill, slay
browne (broun, adjective as noun): brown-haired or brown-complexioned person
blake (blok, adjective as noun): pale, fair-complexioned person [see note]
þat (relative pronoun): anyone who
mouthe (mouen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): be able to
overtake (overtaken, verb, infinitive): catch, catch up with
þat (relative pronoun): who, whoever
þave (thaven, verb, infinitive): endure, withstand
noyþer (neither, conjunction): neither
ne (conjunction): nor
knave (noun): commoner, foot-soldier
þat (that, conjunction): in the sense that
he (pronoun): they
felde (fallen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): fall, die
so (adverb): as, in the way that
dos (don, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): do
gres (gras, noun): grass
biforn (bifore(n, preposition): before, in front of
syþe (sithe, noun): scythe
es (ben, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): be
hwan (whanne, conjunction): when
brittene (britnen, verb, past participle): shatter, break, divide
swiþe (swith(e, adverb): fully, completely
littene (littenen, verb, past participle): become fewer, diminish
drivende (driven, verb, present participle): rush, go hastily
til (preposition): to
grede (greden, verb, infinitive): cry out, shout
wat (what, pronoun): what sort of person
is (ben, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): be
fare (faren, verb, 2nd person present subjunctive singular): behave, conduct oneself
þus (thus, adverb): thus, in this way
with (preposition): with respect to
mine (min, pronoun): my
slos (slen, verb, 2nd person present indicative singular): kill, slay
sikerlike (sikerli, adverb): certainly, to be sure
misgos (misgon, verb, 2nd person present indicative singular): make a mistake, transgress, commit a wrong
wost (witen, verb, 2nd person present indicative singular): know
wel (adverb): well, full well, clearly
yif (if, conjunction): if
wilt (willen, verb, 2nd person present indicative singular): want, desire
wite (witen, verb, infinitive): know
dide (don, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): cause (see note)
site (sitten, verb, infinitive): sit, sit down (see note)
knes (kne, noun, plural): knee
sweren (verb, infinitive): promise, swear an oath, vow
messe (noun): mass, liturgy of the Eucharist
bok (noun): book
caliz (chalice, noun): the cup that holds the sacramental wine 
pateyn (paten(e, noun): the plate on which the sacramental bread is placed
hok (ok, noun): also, too
douhter (doughter, noun): daughter
sholdest (shulen, verb, 2nd person past subjunctive singular): [modal auxiliary expressing obligation]
yelde (yelden, verb, infinitive): relinquish, give up
þan (thanne, adverb): when
were (ben, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive singular): to be
wimman (womman, noun): woman
elde (noun): age, age of conventional maturity
everil (everi, adjective): every
del (noun): part, bit
do (don, verb, 2nd person present imperative singular): do
withuten (withouten, preposition): without
fiht (fight, noun): resistance, struggle
yeld (yelden, verb, 2nd person present imperative singular): yield, give up
hire (hir(e, dative pronoun): to her
lond (noun): country, kingdom
rith (right, adjective): correct, proper, virtuous
wile (willen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): [see note]
forgive (foryeven, verb, infinitive): give up, abandon
þe (the, pronoun): you
þe (the, definite article): the
lathe (loth, noun): hostility, enmity
al (adverb): fully
dede (deth, noun): death
wrathe (wratthe, noun): distress, vexation
se (sen, verb, infinitive) see, perceive
so (adverb): so very
with (wight, adjective): brave, courageous
of (preposition): regarding
bodi (noun): body, physical being
so (adverb): such a very
god (adjective): good, skilful, excellent
knith (knight, noun): knight
wile (willen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): will; want
neveremo (never-mo, adverb): not at all, in no way
slo (slen, verb, infinitive): kill
þe (pronoun): you
hire(hir(e, pronoun): her [i.e., Goldeboru]
forhenge (forhon, verb, infinitive): hang, execute by hanging
heye (heighe, adverb): high up
þrist (thristen, verb, infinitive): put out
rith (right, adjective): right [i.e., the relative direction]
lokes (loken, verb, 2nd person present indicative singular): look, gaze
on (preposition): at
but (conjunction): unless
swiþe(swithe,adverb): quickly, without delay
heþen (hethen, adverb): hence, from this place
fle (flen, verb, 2nd person present subjunctive singular): flee, retreat, run away
grop (gripen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): grab, snatch, take
sone (adverb): immediately
anon (an-on, adverb): immediately
hew (heuen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): strike, hit
on (preposition): at
won (won(e, noun): abundance [see idiom note]
clef (cleven, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): cleave, split
on (preposition): in
hwan (whanne, conjunction): when
shame (noun): dishonourable behaviour, shameful act
do (don, verb, past participle): do
his (pronoun): his
þer (adverb): there, in that place
biforn (biforen, adverb): in front of
drow (drauen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): draw, unsheathe
smote (smiten, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): smite, strike, hit
so (adverb): to such a degree
crune (couroune, noun): top of the head
þat (conjunction): with the result that
adune (adoun, adverb): down
stirt (sterten, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): jump
sket(adverb): quickly
lay (lien, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): lie, be cast down
nowth (nought, adverb): not at all
longe (adverb): for a long time
hise (his, pronoun): his
fet (fot, noun, plural): foot
sholdre (shulder, noun), shoulder
dide (don, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): [auxiliary verb]
þare (ther, adverb): in that area of the body
undo (undon, verb, infinitive): break, destroy
brinie (noun): mail-coat
ringes (ring, noun, plural): ring, link [of a mail-coat]
mo (adjective): more
kan (connen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): be capable of
tellen (verb, infinitive): say
fro (preposition): about, regarding
woundede (wounden, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): wound, injure
rith (right(e, adverb): fully, deeply
flesh (noun), flesh, body
tendre (tender, adjective): vulnerable, susceptible to injury
nesh (neshe, adjective): soft, tender
blod (noun): blood
til (preposition): to, down to
to (noun): toe
Þo (adverb): then
wo (adjective): grieved, distressed
of (preposition): from
drawen (drauen, verb, past participle): take, draw, cause to flow
slawen (slen, verb, past participle): wound
hertelike (herteli(e, adverb): courageously, boldly
til (conjunction): to, up to
wente (gon, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): go
fulike (foul(e, adverb): grievously
shente (shenden, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): wound, injure
for (forth, adverb): directly, straight
hof (heven, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): lift, raise
heye (heighe, adverb): up high
dide (don, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): make, cause
of (preposition): off
fleye (flien, verb, infinitive): fly
hw (hou, adverb): how
mithe (mouen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): be able to
don (verb, infinitive): cause
shame (noun): disgrace, ignominy, humiliation
hwan (whanne, conjunction): when
so (adverb): in this way
shamed (shamen, verb, past participle): shame, defeat
of (preposition): off
plat (platten, verb, past participle): chop
ivele (ivel(e, adverb): very badly
lamed (lamen, verb, past participle): disfigure, injure
tok (taken, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): take hold of
sone (adverb): immediately
necke (nekke, noun): neck
als (also, adverb): in the manner of, as befits
traitour (noun): traitor, one guilty of treason
daþeit (noun/interjection): a curse on [him]!; may [he] come to grief!
who (pronoun): whoever
recke (recchen, verb, 3rd person present subjunctive singular): value, feel pity
dide (don, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): make, cause to
binde (binden, verb, passive infinitive): bind
fetere (feteren, verb, passive infinitive): fetter, shackle
gode (god, adjective): fine, excellent
feteres (feter, noun, plural): shackle, fetter
al (adverb): entirely
stel (stel(e, noun): steel
quen (quen(e, noun): queen
sende (senden, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): send
birde (biren, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): have cause to, be likely to
wel (adverb): fully, very much
ben (verb, infinitive): be
grim (adjective): cruel, badly-disposed
bad (bidden, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): ask, beseech
sholde (shulen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): [modal auxiliary expressing duty; translate as ‘should’]
don (verb, infinitive): make, cause to
gete (geten, verb, passive infinitive): guard, watch over
non (pronoun): no-one
ne (conjunction): neither
bete (beten, verb, infinitive): beat, flog
ne (conjunction): nor
shame (noun): dishonourable behaviour, shameful act
do (don, verb, infinitive): commit
til (preposition): until
demd (demen, verb, past participle): judge
rith (right(e, adverb): justly, fairly
þan (thanne, adverb): when
þat (that, pronoun): that
sawe (sen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): see
þat (that, adverb): at that point, in this way
wisten (witen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): know, be certain about
heye (heigh, adjective): high-born
lawe (loue, adjective): low-born
þat (that, conjunction): that
þat (that, pronoun): who
fayr(fair, adjective): beautiful
rith (right, adjective): lawful, rightful
eyr (heir, noun): heir
hire (hir(e, pronoun): her
havede (haven, verb 3rd person past indicative singular): [auxiliary verb]
wedded (wedden, verb, past participle): wed, marry
haveden (haven, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): [auxiliary verb]
been (ben, verb, past participle)
samen (adverb): together
bedded (bedden, verb, past participle): occupy a bed, share a bed
he (pronoun): they
comen (verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): come
alle (al, adjective): all
crie (crien, verb, infinitive): cry out, beg for
merci (noun): mercy, forgiveness
at (preposition): with
cri (cri(e, noun): cry, shout
beden (verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): offer, promise
sone (adverb): immediately
manrede (man-reden, noun): homage
oth (noun): oath
he (pronoun): they
ne (conjunction): neither
sholden (shulen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): [modal auxiliary expressing future contingency; ‘would’]
lef (noun): loved one
ne (conjunction): nor
loth (noun): enemy
neveremore (never-more, adverb): never again
ageyn (ayen, preposition): against
go (gon, verb, infinitive): go on foot
ne (conjunction): nor
ride (riden, verb, infinitive): ride on horseback
for (preposition): for, for the sake of
wel (wele, noun): good fortune
ne (conjunction): nor
wo (noun): misfortune
ne (conjunction): not
wolde (willen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): want, wish
nouth (nought, adverb): not at all
forsake (forsaken, verb, infinitive): neglect
shulde (shulen, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive singular): be obliged to, have a duty to
of (preposition): from
hem (pronoun): them
take (taken, verb, infinitive): receive, take
manrede (man-reden, noun): homage, promise of service, fealty
he (pronoun): they
beden (verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): offer
ok (noun): also, too
hold (adjective): loyal
oþes (oth, noun, plural): oath
sweren (verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): swear
bok (noun): book, Bible
or (er, preposition): first, before that
bad (bidden, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): request
he (pronoun): he
þider (thider, adverb): to that place, there
were (ben, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive singular): be
brouth (bringen, verb, past participle): bring, conduct
hem (pronoun): them
swilk (swich, adjective): such
þouth (thought, noun): intention,
se (sen, verb, infinitive): see
shawe (sheuen, verb, infinitive): observe, examine
yif (if, conjunction): if
he (pronoun): they
hire (pronoun): her
wolde (willen, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive plural): be likely to
knawe (knouen, verb): recognise
þoruth (thurgh-out(e, preposition): by means of, through
hem (pronoun): them
witen (verb, infinitive): be sure, know, know for certain
wolde (willen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): want, desire
he (pronoun): he
aucte (ouen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): deserve, have the right to
be (ben, verb, infinitive): be
erles (erl, noun, plural): high-ranking nobleman
weren (ben, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): be
sone (adverb): immediately
yare (adjective): ready, prepared
after (preposition): after, seeking
hire (pronoun): her
fare (faren, verb, infinitive): travel, journey
he (pronoun): they
nomen (nimen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): leave, depart
onon (an-on, adverb): immediately
comen (verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): come, arrive
sone (adverb): soon, quickly
brouthen (bringen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): bring, fetch
hire (pronoun): her
þat (relative pronoun): who
mone (mon(e, noun): moon
werd (world, noun): world
havede (hauen, 3rd person past indicative singular): have
per (noun): peer, equal
of (preposition): in, concerning
hendeleik (hendelaik, noun): nobility, courtesy
fer (adverb): far
ne (conjunction): nor
nere (ner, adverb): near
was (ben, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): [past auxiliary]
come (comen, verb, past participle): come, arrive
þider (thider, adverb): to that place, there
bigunne (biginnen, 3rd person past indicative plural): begin
falle (fallen, verb, infinitive): fall down, prostrate oneself
o (preposition): on
knes (kne, noun, plural): knee
greten (verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): weep, lament
sore (adverb): grievously, bitterly
levedi (ladi(e, noun): lady
Kristes (Christ, noun, genitive): Christ
ore (or(e, noun): mercy, pardon
youres (pronoun): yours
haven (verb, 1st person past indicative plural): [past auxiliary]
misdo (misdon, verb, past participle): transgress, do wrong
mikel (muchel, adverb): greatly
þat (that, conjunction): because
ayen (prepositon): against
have (haven, verb, 1st person past indicative plural): [past auxiliary]
be (ben, verb, past participle): be
fikel (adjective): treacherous, false
auhte (ouen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): deserve, have the right to
ben (verb, infinitive): be
youre (pronoun): your
non (pronoun): none
yung (yong, adjective): young
ne (conjunction): nor
þat (that, relative pronoun): who
ne (conjunction): not
wot (witen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): know
kunerike (kineriche, noun): kingdom
ye (pronoun): you
eyr (heir, noun): heir
swike (noun): wretch, traitor
haves (haven, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): [past auxiliary]
halden (holden, verb, past participle): hold, rule over
with (preposition): with [see note]
mikel (muchel, adjective): great
wronge (wrong, noun): injustice
leve (leven, verb, 3rd person present subjunctive singular): grant
sone (adverb): soon, immediatelty
honge (hangen, verb, infinitive): hang
quot (quethen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): say
hwan (whanne, conjunction): since
ye (pronoun, plural): you
wite (witen, verb, 3rd person present indicative plural): know
nu (nou, adverb): now
wile (willen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): want, desire
doune (doun, adverb): down
site (sitten, verb, infinitive): sit, [perhaps] sit in judgement
after (preposition): according to the way in which, according as
haves (haven, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): [past auxiliary]
wrouht (werken, verb, past participle): do, behave
þat (that, relative pronoun): who
in (preposition): to
sorwe (noun): bad circumstances,
brouth (bringen, verb, past participle): bring, bring upon
lokes (loken, verb, 2nd person present imperative plural): see to it; be sure
demen (verb, 2rd person present indicative plural): judge
rith (right(e, adverb): correctly, legally
dom (noun): justice; the Last Judgement
ne (conjunction): neither
spareth (sparen, verb, 3rd person present indicative singular): spare, show mercy
clerk (noun): member of the clergy
ne (conjunction): nor
siþen (sitthen, adverb): after that, afterwards
understonde (understonden, verb, infinitive): receive
of (preposition): from
after (preposition): in accordance with
lawe (laue, noun): law, legal system
londe (lond, noun): land, country
manrede (man-reden, noun): homage, promise of service, fealty
hold (adjective): loyal
oþes (oth, noun, plural): oath
yif (if, conjunction): if
wilen (willen, verb, 2rd person present indicative plural): want, desire
ek (conjunction): also
rothe (rothen, verb, 2rd person present indicative plural): counsel, advise
anon (an-on, adverb): immediately
dune (doun, adverb): down
he (pronoun): they
hem (pronoun, reflexive): themselves
sette (sitten, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): place, put
non (pronoun): none
dom (noun): judgement, administration of justice
ne (conjunction): not
durste (durren, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): dare
lette (letten, verb, infinitive): neglect
demden (demen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): order, command
binden (verb, passive infinitive): bind, tie up
faste (fast(e, adverb): securely, tightly
asse (noun): donkey, ass
swiþe (swith(e, adverb): very
unwraste (unwrest(e, adjective): worn-out, disgusting
andelong (along, adverb): lengthways
nouth (nought, adverb): not at all
overþwert (overthwert, adverb): crosswise
nose (noun): nose
went (gon, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): go, turn, face
unto (preposition): towards
stert (noun): tail
so (adverb): in this way
lede (leden, verb, passive infinitive): lead
shamelike (shameli, adverb): shamefully
wicke (wik(ke, adjective): shabby, unpleasant
wede (noun): clothing
hwan (whanne, conjunction): when
come (comen, verb, 3rd person past subjunctive singular): come, arrive
borw (burgh, noun): town, city
ben (verb, infinitive): be
led (leden, verb, past participle): lead, conduct
þer (ther, adverb): there
þoru (thurgh, preposition): through
bi (preposition): [see note]
souþe (south, noun): south
unto (preposition): as far as
grene (noun): grassy place
þare (ther, adverb): there
yet (adverb): still
als (also, adverb): as far as
wene (wenen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): know
þere (ther, adverb): in that place
bunden (binden, verb, past participle): bind, tie up
til (preposition): to
stake (noun): post, stake
abouten (aboute(n, adverb): around
ful (adverb): very
gret (adjective): large
fir (noun): fire
make (maken, verb, passive infinitive): make
al (adverb): completely
dust (noun): dust, ashes
brend (brennen, verb, past participle): burn
rith (right, adverb): fully, entirely
yet (adverb): still
demden (demen, verb, 3rd person past indicative plural): order, command
he (pronoun): they
þer (ther, adverb): concerning this
more (mor(e, adverb): further
swikes (swike, noun, plural): traitor
warne (warnen, verb, infinitive): warn
hise (his, pronoun): his
sulde (shulen, verb): [auxiliary expressing obligation; ‘should’]
þarne (tharnen, verb, infinitive): be deprived of, be without
everemore (ever-mo(r, adverb): in perpetuity, for ever,
eritage (heritage, noun): inheritance
for (preposition): because of, on account of
utrage (outrage, noun): wrongdoing, evil deeds
dom (noun): judgement, sentence
demd (demen, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): pass judgement, give a verdict
seyd (seien, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): announce, make known
sket (sket(e, adverb): swiftly
swike (noun): traitor
asse (noun): donkey
leyd (leien, verb, past participle): place, put
led (leden, verb, past participle): lead, take
huntil (until, preposition): to, as far as
ilke (pronoun): same
grene (noun): grassy place, town green
brend (brennen, verb, past participle): burn
til (preposition): to, to the point of
asken (asshe, plural noun): ashes
al (adverb): entirely
bidene (adverb): completely, fully
þo (tho, adverb): then, at that point
bliþe (blithe, adjective): joyful, glad
þanked (thanken, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): thank, give thanks to
fele (adverb): many
syþe (sith, noun, plural): time, occasion
fule (foul, adjective): wicked, evil
þat (relative pronoun): who
wende (wenden, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): intend
wel (adverb): fully, completely
bodi (noun): body
have (haven, verb, infinitive): [auxiliary verb]
shende (shenden, verb, past participle): shame, violate, injure
nu (nou, adverb): now
take (taken, verb, infinitive): receive
manrede (man-reden, noun): homage, promise of service, fealty
brune (broun, adjective as noun): brown-haired or brown-complexioned person
blake (blok, adjective as noun): pale, fair-complexioned person
þat (that, relative pronoun): who
se (sen, verb, 1st person present indicative singular): see
ride (riden, verb, infinitive): ride
go (gon, verb, infinitive): go on foot
wreke (wreken, verb, past participle): avenge
fo (noun): enemy
anon (an-on, adverb): immediately
manrede (man-reden, noun): homage, promise of service, fealty
tok (taken, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): take
of (preposition): from
Englishe (English, noun, plural): Englishmen
bok (noun): book (literally, but see idiom note)
dide (don, verb, 3rd person past indicative singular): make, cause to
hem (pronoun): them
grete (gret, adjective): important, weighty, extensive
oþes (oth, noun, plural): solemn promise, oath
swere (sweren, verb, infinitive): promise solemnly
he (pronoun): they
sholden (shulen, verb, 3rd person present subjunctive plural): be obliged to, have a duty to
him (pronoun): for him, for his sake
god (adjective): good
feyth (feith, noun): loyalty
bere (beren, verb, infinitive): show, possess
ageyn (ayen, preposition): towards, concerning
woren (ben, verb, 3rd person present subjunctive plural): be
lives (adjective): alive
sholde (shulen, verb, 3rd person present subjunctive plural): [future auxiliary; ‘would’]
ben (verb, infinitive): be
born (beren, verb, past participle): bear a child
of (preposition): from, by
wives (wif, noun, plural): woman
Sathanas: ‘that Satan’, but used figuratively, i.e. ‘that exceedingly wicked man’
al þat his was: ‘all that was his’; ‘all of his possessions’
ilk del: adverbial set phrase meaning ‘entirely’
Ubbe in the hond: ‘into Ubbe’s possession’
he sholde: ‘that’ is implied
Þo swor Havelok he sholde make, / Al for Grim, of monekes blake / A priorie to serven inne ay / Jesu Crist til Domesday: this convoluted sentence demonstrates the flexible word order of Middle English verse. ‘Then Havelok solemnly promised that he would establish a priory of black monks in which to praise Jesus Christ forever until the Day of Judgement, all for Grim’s sake’.
herde telle: the sense of this sentence seems to demand a different conjugation of ‘tellen’: either a past participle (‘herde tolde’; ‘heard it said’) or a 3rd person past indicative plural verb with indefinite subject (‘herde tellen’; ‘heard them [i.e., people] say’). However, ‘heren tellen’ is an established Middle English idiomatic construction, strictly ungrammatical but widely used. The same construction is present, but not widely used, in Present-Day English: ‘s/he heard tell that’.
mixed: mix (noun) is a fairly uncommon word meaning ‘filth’ or ‘dirt’. This is only instance of the past participle’s adjectival use recorded by the MED. See mixed (ppl.).
ferde: the indefinite article should be understood, but it is not always required in Middle English.
for to winne: ‘for’ is strictly redundant here, but ‘for to’ followed by an infinitive is a common  way of constructing purpose clauses in Middle English. See MED to (verbal particle), sense 2a(d).
Hwat shal me to raþe?: this is a grammatically difficult sentence. ‘to be’ should be supplied, ‘to’ here means ‘regarding’, and ‘me’ is in the dative case. Literally: ‘What will [be] for me regarding a course of action?’ In idiomatic Modern English: ‘What will my course of action be?’, or even ‘What shall I do?’.
So mote ich brouke my rith eie: as I hope to have the use of my right eye.
but yif: ‘unless’
þat: we need to supply a verb here: ‘[he ordered] that’. It is also possible that ‘ut-bidde’ is an active infinitive, ‘dide’ is an intensifying auxiliary verb, and that ‘ut-bidde’ therefore governs the clause following this conjunction.
al þat euere: ‘euere’ and ‘al’ intensify the pronoun here; the phrase therefore means ‘whosoever’.
Þat: this conjunction shows that the sentence is still governed by the supplied verb of ordering from six lines previously. In other words, we are to understand that the text of the levy circulated by Godrich contained the warnings and threats of the following lines.
Þat: this conjunction serves as a further reminder of the supplied verb governing this clause.
him to: ‘to him’; this is a common construction, especially at the end of lines, when a flexibility of word-order allows for a greater number of possible rhyme-words.
‘With ful god wepne ye bere’: this slippage from indirect into direct speech is Smithers’ emendation, but it is far from a stylistic impossibility and makes better grammatical sense than other constructions of the line’s sense.
so: this adverb refers to the direct speech immediately preceding it. It means ‘in this way/state’; in other words, ‘carrying very good weapons’.
so þat he couþe hem god þank: this phrase is somewhat elliptical, and requires a verb: translate as ‘so that he could show benevolent gratitude towards them’. It is also possible that the last word is an infinitive form of the verb ‘thanken’ (‘þanke’; with the <e> suppressed positionally in order to preserve the rhyme), in which case ‘god’ becomes an adverb and we can translate the phrase straightforwardly as ‘so that he could fully thank them’.
yif þat: ‘if’
Þe Englishe þat herde þat, / Was non þat evere his bode sat: some words need to be supplied here: ‘[Of] the Englishmen that heard that, [there] was not one who resisted his order at all’. The sense of the sentence seems to demand that ‘Englishe’ is a genitive plural with a partitive function (‘of the English’); <-e> is not a common form for the plural genitive, but it is certainly possible. The Lambeth Homilies, for example, contain one example of this form, which may derive from the Old English form <-a> (e.g. stana, ‘of the stones’).
So runcy spore, and mikle more: The verb ‘dredde’ from the previous line governs this sentence as well, and should be supplied: ‘As the nag [fears] the spur, and very much more’.
At þe day he come sone / Þat he hem sette, ful wel o-bone: the syntax of these lines has been shuffled to preserve the rhyme-scheme. In prose, this line would probably read ‘At þe day þat he hem set, he come sone, ful wel o-bone’, and should be translated in this order.
he come sone: the grammatical indentity of ‘come’ is not entirely clear. It clearly governs the arrival of ‘he’ (which is undoubtedly plural here), and the sense of the line would seem to suggest that we need a 3rd person past indicative plural form (‘they came immediately on the day that he appointed’). However, the poem’s usual form for this conjugation is ‘comen’. ‘Come’ is usually a past participle in Havelok. However, the presence of the pronoun ‘he’ makes it difficult for us to construe it as such. The scribe probably intended to write ‘comē’ (which is a standard way of abbreviating <n>, and would be expanded as ‘comen’), but forgot to add the macron. Assuming that the scribe made this mistake (and it is a very common omission) gives the line a much more straightforward sense. It is also possible that the scribe considered ‘come’ an acceptable way of representing this conjugation.
wore come: ‘comen’ takes ‘ben’ as its past auxiliary; see l. 2795 ‘was come’, idiom note.
do ful wo: ‘create great misery’
shal I: this inversion of pronoun and verb is very common in Middle English.
nevere more: ‘any longer’, ‘no longer’
til þat: ‘until’
daþeyt hwo ne stonde faste: ‘may he who does not endure strongly be damned’
litel stunde: ‘stunde’ carries with it the connotation of brevity, so ‘litel stunde’ is strictly a tautology, albeit a very common one in ME.
Greþet als men mithe telle a pund: i.e., they were ready in not a very long time at all.
ful god won: a set adverbial expression meaning ‘in great numbers’.
bi the sti: ‘on the road’; ‘by road’
til he come: ‘til’ can take a subjunctive verb, and does here; translate this phrase as ‘until they came’.
come ney at: ‘comen at’ is a set phrase meaning ‘approach’.
Til that: ‘until’
þore: there is no previously mentioned place that this ‘there’ can refer to. It carries a diminished spatial sense here, and probably does not need to be translated.
and þat: this indicates that the following phrase is governed by the same verb as the previous line.
let wade: The subject of this verb is ‘he’; the object is ‘swerd’.
Nu: this word has a diminished temporal sense in this context, and functions more generally as an intensfying adverb.
first the croune: ‘head-first’
Þanne he woren fallen dun boþen: ‘when they had both fallen down’
with þe alþerleste dint / Were al to-shivered a flint: ‘a rock would be entirely shattered by the smallest of these blows’
nouth ne blunne: ‘did not stop at all’
Þo yaf Godrich þorw þe side / Ubbe a wunde ful unride: the recipient of the blow is not immediately clear, but the context shows that it is Ubbe who is wounded.
Yif God ne were and Huwe Raven, / Þat drow him fro Godrich awey / And barw him so þat ilke day: ‘if it were not for God and Huwe Raven, who dragged him away from Godrich, and protected him in this way on that very day’.
bi boþe halve: ‘on both sides’
on þe feld was nevere a polk / Þat it ne: these double negatives make a semantic positive: ‘on the field there was no puddle that did not well up’ (= ‘on the field all of the puddles welled up’).
hul: the MED interprets this word as a variant spelling of hol(e, but Smithers disagrees on technical linguistic grounds. His suggested meaning (which is given in the gloss on this word) makes these lines match parallel scenes in other romances in which the blood from a battle runs down into a valley.
Þat nevere kines beste ne spares: these double negatives, unlike ll. 2686-7 above, have an intensifying effect: ‘that does not spare any beast of any sort’.
He felde browne, he felde blake: This phrase means ‘he cut everyone down [whether swarthy or pale]’. Although ‘blake’ initially seems to be a variant spelling of blak (adjective), meaning ‘black’, it is in fact descended from an Old English word (‘blac’) meaning ‘pale’, and has the same meaning
Was nevere non: double negative with intensifying force: ‘there was no-one’
Þat he felde so dos þe gres / Biforn þe syþe þat ful sharp es: ‘In that they fell as does the grass before the scythe that is very sharp’
wat is þe: the form of the verb here shows that ‘þe’ is not its direct object. A close translation of this idiom, although from a somewhat inappropriate register, would be ‘what is it with you?’
þe: this pronoun is the object of ‘site’.
dide site: this phrase can be construed in two, possibly three ways. Either ‘site’ means ‘make sit, cause to sit’ and ‘dide’ is used as part of a construction equivalent in meaning to ‘sat’ (3rd person past indicative plural), or ‘site’ means ‘to sit’, and ‘dide’ means ‘make, cause to do’. An emphatic function for ‘dide’ is also possible, but unlikely in this context. The second option has been preferred because the first option generally places the form of ‘don’ in unstressed positions, which is not the case here: ‘Þat A-þel-WOLD þe DI-de SITE’.
sweren: this verb is also governed by ‘dide’, and so means ‘made you swear’.
Þat þou hise douhter sholdest yelde, / Þan she were wimman of elde, / Engelond everil del: ‘That you would give up [control of] England, every last bit, to his daughter, when she came of age as a woman’.
of elde: this idiom has survived into Modern English: ‘of age’.
þat: i.e., to give the country to Goldeboru.
wile: it is not clear whether this is simply an auxiliary verb expressing futurity (‘I will’), or an expression of desire (‘I want’). Either makes sense in the context.
Þat þou lokes with on me: ‘with which you look at me’
he: i.e., Godrich
sone anon: literally, ‘immediately at once’. This kind of redundancy (whose emphatic rhetorical effect is probably secondary to its as an aid to scansion and rhyme) is common in all kinds of Middle English verse.
ful god won: standard adverbial phrase meaning ‘vigorously, forcefully’; literally, with a very good number’ (‘of blows’ or similar understood).
on two: ‘in two pieces’
do / His bodi: the sense of this line is ‘done [to] his person’.
þan þat: ‘than’
Als a traitour, da þeit who recke: ‘as befits a traitor – curse anyone who pities him!’
binde … fetere … gete: there is a cluster of passive infinitives in this passage, which look exactly the same as active infinitives, but are identified as passive by context and by the presence of ‘don’, an auxiliary verb meaning ‘cause’, ‘make to’.
for he was knith, / Til knithes haveden demd him rith: ‘for he was a knight, / Until knights had judged him fairly’.
þat: i.e., that Godrich had been imprisoned as a traitor.
heye and lawe: ‘high and low’; i.e., everyone.
at one cri: standard phrase meaning ‘with one voice’.
Þe king ne wolde nouth forsake / Þat he ne shulde: double negative with intensifying effect: ‘the king did not want to neglect [his duty; namely,] that he should’.
bok: i.e., the Bible.
were brouth: ‘should be brought’
under mone: a common expression meaning ‘in the entire world’
was come: like French and archaic forms of Modern English (e.g. ) some Middle English verbs take ‘be’ instead of ‘have’ as an auxiliary to form the perfect tense.
levedi: a term of respectful address
for to ben: ‘to be’
Is non of us, yung ne old, / Þat he ne wot : 1) ‘non’ takes the singular in Middle English. 2) ‘Is non of us … þat he ne wot’ is a double negative phrase with a positive meaning: ‘There is not one of us who does not know’.
with mikel wronge: ‘with’ [+ noun] is equivalent to an adverb; we should therefore translate this phrase as ‘wrongfully’.
Hwan þat: ‘Since’; ‘þat’ is redundant.
bi southe: ‘south of’
demden him to binden faste: ‘ordered him to be bound tightly’
for to warne: ‘in order to warn’; this construction marks a gerundive infinitive.
brune and blake: ‘swarthy and pale’; ‘everyone’
Þat ich se ride and go: ‘who I see ride and go on foot’; ‘everyone
þe bok: i.e., the Bible
Ageyn hem alle þat woren lives / And þat sholde ben born of wives: ‘towards all those who were alive, and all those that would [in the future] be born of women’; in other words, ‘everyone’.  
Þanne he was ded: Godard, one of the poem’s two major antagonists and usurper of the Danish throne, has been tried as a traitor and flayed to death by the rightful king, Havelok, who has returned to Denmark to reclaim his inheritance. Godard had been appointed regent by Havelok’s father (Birkabeyn) until the young king was capable of governing, but broke his oath and seized the throne, killing Havelok’s sisters and attempting to do the same to Havelok himself.
seysed: The estate of a traitor was not inherited by his heirs, but by the crown. Havelok is therefore following a recognised legal procedure here when he takes possession of Godard’s property.
hand: Havelok’s hand is used as synecdoche for royal land tenure – the meaning is ‘into the Crown’s possession’.
Lond and lith and other catel: Each of the three nouns in this line refers to a different kind of property. ‘Lond’ is the land itself, and ‘lith’ the estate built on the land. ‘Catel’ is a general term for any type of moveable property – which could include people. This line and others like it (for instance, l. 2519 below) suggest that the poet had more than a cursory knowledge of medieval legal diction.
Ubbe: A Danish nobleman loyal to Havelok, whose assistance in Havelok’s restitution to the throne is rewarded by this gift of Godard’s estate, and the regency of Denmark in Havelok’s absence.
Hond: Like l. 2514 ‘hand’, this word comes at the beginning of the third foot of the line. This deliberate parallelism emphasises the symbolic implications of the physical act of placing a staff in Ubbe’s hand. The similarity between this line and l. 2514 is one of many pieces of evidence for a carefully constructed poem – far from a simple ‘transcription’ of an orally transmitted story.
wit a fayr staf: A staff (or other object) was used to symbolise the bestowal of land or property.
Her ich sayse þe: These words do not simply describe the transfer of Godard’s property from Havelok to Ubbe – they embody and perform it. This consistency of word and deed is an important feature of worthy behaviour throughout the poem: Godard’s oath to Birkabeyn early in the poem is a good example of good words betrayed by subsequent actions. See ll. 372-402, and Liam Purdon’s useful article: ‘The Rite of Vassalage in Havelok the Dane.’ Medievalia et Humanistica 20 (1993), 25-39.
In al þe lond, in al þe fe: This is not just emphatic repetition. As in l. 2515 above, ‘lond’ and ‘fe’ represent different types of property: the meaning of ‘fe’ here encompasses any type of movable or immovable property, with the exception of land.
of monekes blake / A priorie: this suggests a foundation of Benedictine monks, who wear black clothing. There is no record of a Benedictine house in Grimsby in the thirteenth century, but one of Havelok’s editors suggests that the author’s knowledge of Lincoln might indicate that he used the Benedictine house in that city as a model. He also notes that the establishment of a religious house is a common gesture of piety in medieval romance, and that similar scenes are found in texts such as Beues of Hamtoun. See G. V. Smithers, Havelok (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987) p. 144.
til Domesday: it should be kept in mind that the Day of Judgement was not imagined by all medieval writers as taking place in the indeterminate future. Thirteenth-century English interest in apocalyptic texts is indicated by books such as the famous Trinity Apocalypse, and by the wide circulation of apocalyptic prophecies by writers such as Joachim of Fiore.
God it woth: an expansion of the interjection ‘Goddoth’, which is used elsewhere in the text a number of times, but only in direct speech (for an example, see l. 2544 below). Taken alongside l. 2530 (see note), this would seem to indicate that the poem becomes more obviously ‘oral’ in style at this point. But is this stylistic shift a relic of a text that was originally transmitted orally, or a deliberate authorial choice designed to ‘perform’ this orality? Modern approaches to texts such as Havelok tend towards arguing the latter; see, for example, Ananya J. Kabir, ‘Forging an Oral Style? Havelok and the Fiction of Orality’, Studies in Philology 19 (2001), 18-48.
graven: this word can mean ‘buried’ or ‘engraved’, and while in this context it has generally been assumed to mean the former, it could be a pun. Grim is figurative ‘graven’ (‘engraved’) on the town by having given it his name. Grim also appears as an engraved  image on the Grimsby’s municipal seal, which dates from the early thirteenth century.
Þat of Grim yet haves the name: this is, of course, Grimsby. These origin myths are a common feature of insular historiography, and are found extremely frequently in, for example, Wace’s Roman de Brut. It has often been noted that the so-called ‘Matter of England’ romances share a preoccupation with English history and national identity, and it might be suggested that this feature is a deliberate borrowing from the techniques of insular historical poetry.
Of Grim bidde ich namore spelle: several possible translations of ‘bidde’ are possible here. Previous editors have glossed the word as meaning ‘offer’ and ‘wish’, but ‘request’ (used with this sense in Havelok l. 1233) is also possible. Each of these renderings changes the narrator’s relationship with his projected audience – does the line coyly turn away from saying more about Grim’s life, or does it perform a subservient request to get on with the story?
þat fule traytour, þat mixed cherl!: Havelok is typical of medieval romances in this cheerful willingness to state explicitly the morality and personal worth of its characters. We are never in any doubt that Godrich is a villain, and Havelok a hero.
strong and stark: the meaning of these adjectives overlaps. This kind of epithetical redundancy is extremely common in Middle English romance, and the same groups of adjectives are often used several times – see Havelok l. 609 (‘He shal ben king strong and stark’), l. 1272, and l.341 ‘stark and strong’. These examples are all found at the end of the line, and may as such suggest that the poet considered them useful tools for the construction of rhymes.
comen Engelond withinne: Havelok’s journey from Denmark to England is not narrated; instead we move directly from one exciting episode (the deposition of the Danish usurper Godard) to its parallel (the deposition of the English usurper Godrich).
and þat she þat was so fayr, / Þat was of Engelond rith eir: this clause is still governed by the ‘telle’ of l. 2531, but it is unclear whether these are simply narrative characterisations, or diegetic ones as well. In other words, does Godrich hear gossip that emphasises Goldeboru’s goodness and moral right to the throne? Such a reading is certainly possible.
Goddoth: this is not a particularly choice piece of language, and should not be thought of as characterising Godrich as a blasphemer. Havelok, Grim, and Ubbe all use the word at various points in the poem.
mi londe: these words attain ironic force in Godrich’s mouth, since it has been shown extremely clearly that England is not his by right in any sense.
deserite: as in the previous line, this use of the language of possession and inheritance is deliberately inappropriate. Godrich controls England, but he does not own it. He owns a fief by virtue of his rank, but has effectively forfeited it at this point because of his treason.
ut-bidde: the English nobility, who are this point loyal to Godrich, the de facto king, hold their lands on condition that they fight for the king when necessary. The army that Godrich raises would have contained knights and foot-soldiers. The knights would all bring foot-soldiers levied from their estates.
al þat euere mouhte o stede / Ride...: Godrich’s levy casts its net very wide. Some of the weapons mentioned (‘syþe’, for instance) have positively agricultural connotations, and would probably not have been carried by mounted warriors. This suggests that Havelok’s army was extremely threatening.
Þat als he loveded leme or lif: this anticipates the explicit threat later in Godrich’s command to the English nobility (l. )
Þat he sholde maken him þral, / And al his ofspring forthwithal: since vassalage began as an exchange of military service for land titles, this is not an unreasonable punishment, although it is potentially significant that the threat needs to be made to secure the obedience of Godrich’s nobles. We might speculate that Havelok would not need to make such threats to raise a large army.
Was non þat evere his bode sat; / For he him dredde swiþe sore: The poet is keen to stress that Godrich’s subjects are obedient because they are afraid of him. As well as providing further evidence of Godrich’s tyranny and cruelty, these lines allow us to exonerate his subjects, and preserve the poem’s idea of England as being largely governed by good people.
So runcy spore, and mikle more: This simile does a good job of communicating the dumb fear of Godrich’s subjects, and also provides an imagistic link with the arrival of these men on horseback a few lines later.
ful wel o-bone,/ To Lincolne with gode stedes, / And al þe wepne þat knith ledes: Again, it is implied that the English are fundamentally worthy men, or at least worthy knights, although Havelok later compliments Godrich – who is emphatically characterised as personally unworthy – in very similar terms (see ll. 2721-2).
sket was þe erl yare / Ageynes Denshe men to fare: This line characterises Godrich as bloodthirsty and easily angered, a characterisation which forms a neat contrast with Havelok’s calm, considered appeal to Godrich’s better nature later in the extract (ll. 2705-22).
for no gamen: i.e., not for a tournament, but the real thing.
uten-laddes: this is an appeal to xenophobic hatred. Havelok and his followers are foreigners who only want to pillage England and murder its inhabitants. Notably, Goldeboru’s support for the invasion remains unmentioned.
priorie numen: the only other priory in Havelok is mentioned earlier in this extract (l. 2523). It is also in Grimsby, but instead of being looted by Havelok, it was founded by him. We could therefore suggest that the allegation of this lines was deliberately chosen to be as far from the truth as possible, since Havelok has not been plundering or destroying priories, but founding them – precisely the opposite action.
brenne kirkes and prestes binde: this lines forms a chiasmus whose rhetorical effect in the middle of this impassioned speech is undeniable. The extent to which it was a conscious part of the poet’s artifice, however, is much more debatable.
Wat wile ye, frend, her-offe rede?: this is a rhetorical question, especially since it has only one possible answer if the allegations of the preceding lines are to be believed.
he moun: this phrase is repeated anaphorically for rhetorical emphasis. Godrich’s speech is of a recognisably different style from the narrative sections of the poem, and it has at least some rhetorical sophistication.
or: this word is also repeated three times while Godrich enumerates the terrible things that will come to pass if Havelok is allowed to succeed.
ure: this word is also repeated three times.
But dos nu als ich wile you lere: after having painted this apocalyptic picture of England’s future, Godrich offers a solution.
For shal I nevere more be bliþe, / Ne hoseled ben ne of prest shriven, / Til þat he ben of londe driven: this is a shocking claim, since Godrich is essentially condemning himself to eternal damnation if Havelok conquers England, and it does not seem to be made for any particular reason. However, it goes some way towards an explanation for why Godard receives confession before being executed (l. 2490), unlike Godrich, who presumably dies in a state of sin. However, it is not clear whether this is because Godrich continues to refuse absolution in accordance with the claim made in these lines, or because his crimes were particularly wicked. The implication seems to be that he is entirely unrepentant.
Þat first shal slo with drawen swerd: Godrich leads from the front. Although we might be tempted to read this as evidence of foolhardiness or imprudence, Havelok’s conduct in the battle is not much different. We must therefore conclude that Godrich is presented as an excellent warrior, and that his moral failings do not have a significant impact on his ability as a warrior.
"Ye! lef, ye!" quoth þe erl Gunter; / "Ya!" quoth þe Erl of Cestre, Reyner: Gunter and Reyner are both characters in the Anglo-Norman romance Gui de Warewic (in fact, there are three Gunters and two Reyners), a text that Havelok’s author may well have known, but there are no substantial relationships between any of these characters beyond their shared names. The reason for their inclusion in Havelok is not clear, since they do not reappear in the story. It is unlikely that their names have a great deal of significance, but Smithers suggests that Reyner could be a thinly disguised version of Ranulf de Bundeville, Earl of Chester and Lincoln. Ranulf was one of the earls involved in a dispute between Henry III and some of his barons, the foremost among whom was Richard of Cornwall, in 1227. Godrich (‘good Richard’?) is Earl of Cornwall; we might therefore suggest that this character makes reference to these events.
Þo mouthe men se þe brinies brihte / On backes keste and lace rithe, / Þe helmes heye on heved sette: romance narratives very frequently contain similar descriptions of the accoutrements of knightly warfare. This example offers a compelling image of the army journeying past (hypothetical) onlookers in their array.
Havelok, þat haveded spired wel / Of here fare: We see from this line that Havelok is a shrewd leader, and is well prepared for the English attack.
With the swerd so he him grette: the primary meaning of the verb ‘greten’ is ‘greet’ or ‘honour’; however, it is frequently found describing the meeting of swords or combatants with ironic or insulting force.
Wolde he nouth for sinne lette: The negative connotations are not as strong here as they appear (as the word hende in the following line indicates); sinne does not mean `sin'. Smithers argues for the sense `pity, shame': `he wouldn't leave off out of pity', but this meaning seems slightly stretched. More likely it should be read as an intensifier of purpose: `he wouldn't leave off beacuse of any harm which might result', that is, he strikes the blow `no matter what'. See MED s.v. sinne (n), senses 4(b) and 4(c).
Roberd: Grim’s eldest son. All three of Grim’s sons are very competent warriors despite being fishermen. One of Havelok’s distinctions is his superlative strength, and the way in which Grim’s sons send limbs flying with their swords suggests that they share this distinction. The question of Havelok’s class ideology has attracted widely different responses. Robert Levine’s article ‘Who Composed Havelok for Whom?, Yearbook of English Studies 22 (1992), 95-104, provides a good summary of previous attempts, as well as offering its own, fairly convincing reading.
William Wendut: another of Grim’s sons.
so sore he slow / Þat he made upon þe feld / His lift arm fleye with þe swerd: The sword must be William Wendut’s, since his adversary would have held a sword in his right hand, not his left. The left arm that flies off so cinematically is in fact holding a shield, not a sword, as the line initially seems to suggest.
Huwe Raven: another of Grim’s three sons. Like his brothers, he is a distinguished fighter, and like them, he seems to fight on foot, but can hold his own against mounted soldiers.
so / Þat he þe heved clef a-two: powerfully gory images of this kind are a common feature of romance texts.
Þer mouthe men se two knicthes bete / Ayþer on oþer dintes grete: Ubbe and Godrich are obviously both excellent warriors. It is likely this single combat serves a preparatory function, serving to demonstrate Godrich’s martial worth in anticipation of Havelok’s later statement to this effect (ll. 2721-2). Havelok’s praise for Godrich’s fighting ability might seem misplaced when Havelok defeats him so readily: it needs to be established that only a warrior of Havelok’s superlative prowess can defeat Godrich.
So was bitwenen hem a fiht / Fro þe morwen ner to þe niht, / So þat þei nouth ne blunne / Til þat to sette bigan þe sunne: there is also an all-day single combat in Gui de Warewic, with intriguingly similar wording: ‘Ferment se sunt entreferuz / Cum forz vassals de granz vertuz, / Des le matin desqu’a la nuit’ (ed. Ewert, ll. 8839-41, ‘They fought for so long / Like strong knights of great power, / From the morning to the night’). It is entirely possible that this is a direct borrowing from a popular text that the author shows evidence of having known in other parts of the poem.
Yif God ne were and Huwe Raven, / Þat drow him fro Godrich awey / And barw him so þat ilke day: the grammar of this sentence is deliberately ambiguous. The verbs ‘drow’ and ‘barw’ are both singular, and so God and Huwe Raven cannot both be the subject linked to the verbs by the relative pronoun. However, there is no indication which of these subjects is to be preferred. A subtle theological point is being made (and it should be noted that Smithers claims clerical authorship for Havelok): both God and Huwe Raven acted to protect Ubbe, but they did not work together, since they did not perform different actions, but the same ones, viewed either pragmatically or spiritually. Trinitarian theology, with its necessary preoccupation with essences, had seen significant developments in the twelfth century, and its concepts were well understood by the thirteenth. It could be convincingly argued that these lines could not have been written by an author without an understanding of these concepts.
Þer were a þousind knihtes slawen: the camera draws back, as it were, and the narration of single combats in the previous lines gives way to a general description of the battle.
Þer: The poet employs anaphoric repetition to heighten the emphatic effect of this emotionally charged tableau, a difficult task after so many gory descriptions of single combats in the preceding lines.
Þat: This word could also be described as undergoing anaphoric repetition, but unlike ‘þer’ above, it does not perform the same grammatical function with each repetition, and the emphatic effect is therefore less pronounced.
also leun fares / Þat nevere kines best ne spares: the lion often stands for Christ in medieval allegories, but there is biblical justification for an opposite reading: ‘Be sober and watch: because your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, goeth about seeking whom he may devour.’ (1 Peter 5:8, Douay-Rheims). This is the ferocious lion intended by this use of the image.
he felde so dos þe gres / Biforn þe sythe þat ful sharpe es: given the proximity of this phrase to the Biblically-resonant mention of the lion, it is possible to suggest a parallel between this simile and the parable of the wheat in the gospel of Matthew (13:24-30). This parable similarly describes the moment of death as a harvest.
And bigan til him to grede: Havelok, although a skilled and enthusiastic warrior, is not a bloodthirsty man, and this passage shows that he finds excessive slaughter distressing. Godrich, as we will see, does not share Havelok’s point of view.
Sikerlike, þou misgos: The battle itself is the transgression, because it was instigated by Godrich, who does not have a right to the throne. The lines surrounding this accusation may contain implications that Havelok expected the English barons to come over to his cause as soon as he arrived in England. In this case, we can extend Godrich’s transgression to include his deception of the English nobility regarding the conduct of Havelok’s army.
messe bok: missal; a book containing the liturgical texts and instructions for the celebration of Mass. The texts vary throughout the year, so mass-books are quite large, and often run to two volumes, especially when they also contain musical notations of the chants specified for each text and season. Solemn oaths were often uttered while the oath-taker was touching a holy object – this could be a missal, a as in this passage, a gospel-book, the consecrated Host, or holy relics. The first one-volume Bibles (a difficult undertaking for scribes and book-producers) were beginning to be produced in Paris at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and so the poet could probably also have imagined Godrich swearing on a full Bible as well.
On caliz and on pateyn hok: these containers for the two components of the Eucharist were also common items on which to swear a solemn oath.
of þi bodi so god knith: it is possible that the phrase ‘of þi bodi’ contains an implied criticism. Godrich is a ‘god knith’ in a bodily sense, but not in a spiritual sense – he is excessively violent, bloodthirsty, and dishonourable. However, his prowess makes him a good knight in at least one sense, and it is on these grounds that Havelok seems ready to forgive him.
for ich shal slo / Þe, and hire forhenge heye: this phrase forms a chiasmus (verb-object-object-verb).
I shal þrist ut þi rith eye: this phrase closely parallels (but means something different from) a phrase previously used by Godrich in direct speech. See l. 2545.
shame: Godrich seems to have attempted a surprise attack (hence the emphatic ‘sone anon’). Havelok’s guard is down, and it is presumably for this reason that Godrich lands a good blow on his shield. To attack without warning would have been considered a cowardly breach of chivalric etiquette.
And woundede him rith in þe flesh: although it would initially seem that receiving this wound damages Havelok’s characterisation as an exceptional warrior, it is important that he is wounded so that we can see his resilience and endurance, even after having been wounded badly.
for he was knith, / Til knithes haveden demd him rith: A major theme in Havelok is the importance of judicial process; a useful (although not uncontroversial) article partially on this subject is David Staines, ‘Havelok the Dane: A Thirteenth-Century Handbook for Princes’, Speculum 51 (1976), 602-23. In this line, the English nobility must sit in judgement over Godrich, and he is treated with some civility (although not much) until this judgement has been passed. However, the text exhibits a tension at this point between the known fact of Godrich’s treachery and the need to observe due process. Godrich is still a knight, but only until the judgement is handed down, and there is no doubt as to what the result of this judgement will be. His status is therefore undoubtedly temporary, and furthermore will be inevitably stripped in due course, but Godrich nevertheless retains some of its associated rights. However, he does not retain all of them, since he is placed in fetters, unusually for a high-ranking prisoner.
He comen alle to crie “Merci”: Havelok is revealed to be the rightful king of England by virtue of his marriage to Goldeboru, the dead king’s daughter and the heir to the throne. The English people come to know this when Godrich is revealed to have been a traitor who had reneged upon his promise to give up the throne to Goldeboru when she came of age. Havelok’s invasion of England is thus revealed as a just war, and the aggressor becomes a liberator.
Þoruth hem witen wolde he / Yif þat she aucte quen to be: Havelok wants to see whether Goldeboru will be accepted as queen by popular acclamation, and clearly considers this a vital test of her claim to the throne.
Sixe erles: this line functions as a demonstration of the importance of the mission to fetch the queen. In Havelok, an earl is a very high-ranking nobleman indeed – after all, Godrich (Earl of Cornwall) was chosen as regent after the death of Goldeboru’s father
þat under mone / In al þe werd ne havede per / Of hendeleik, fer ne ner: romance heroines are commonly described as having peerless nobility; – these lines are highly conventional.
For Englond auhte for to ben / Youres, and we youre men: it is not made clear what exactly prompts this change of heart. Were the English afraid of Godrich? Did Godrich misrepresent his claim to the throne? Both of these are likely.
Þat he ne wot þat Aþelwold / Was king of þis kunerike / And ye his eyr: the present tense of ‘wot’ means that we cannot conclude that the English people held this opinion before Godrich was deposed. In fact, the tense suggests that this was a recently formed opinion.
it: i.e., that Aþelwold was the true king, that Goldeboru is his heir, and that Godrich is a traitor.
wicke wede: as the judgement has beeen made and he is no longer a knight, Godrich is no longer allowed to wear the clothing appropriate to his former rank.
Þat þare is yet, als I wene: such attempts to tie Havelok’s fictional narrative into local history are found frequently throughout the poem. In this case, the green in question seems to have existed in the thirteenth century, and was located just outside Lincoln. This seems to suggest that the author had some familiarity with the city.
Þat hise children sulde þarne / Everemore þat eritage / Þat his was, for hise utrage: there is reciprocity here, since this disinheritance is effectively the sentence Godrich would have passed on Goldeboru and her descendants if Havelok had not intervened. The disinheritance also forms a parallel with the disseisin of Godard’s property at the beginning of this extract.
swike: this word is often used in reference to the devil – note that Godrich is called ‘Sathanas’ at the very beginning of this extract and elsewhere in Havelok. These words probably would have had very similar resonances.
Brend til asken al bidene: the section that immediately precedes this extract narrates a similar trial and execution of Godard, the usurper of Havelok’s rightful throne in Denmark. Parallel scenes such as these are typical in medieval romance, and these repetitions can be seen as a fundamental stylistic principle of Havelok, as with many other romance texts.
Þat wende wel hire bodi have shend: Goldeboru was shamed when Godard forced her to marry someone who appeared to be a common man. This was Havelok, who was of course the rightful king of Denmark, although he did not know this at the time.
Havelok anon manrede tok / Of alle Englishe: Goldeboru is the heir to England, but Havelok, as her husband, is the king, and therefore the English swear fealty to him, even though he is Danish. The poet is keen to stress that this dynastic change is universally supported by the people. This is an interesting emphasis in an English text written at a time when the culture and literature of the French-speaking nobility were still dominant.