ich (pronoun, first person singular): I
one (indefinite article, inflected following a preposition): a
sumere (adjective): somer, summer
dale (noun, singular): valley
suþe (adverb): swithe, very
diȝele (adjective): diȝel, secluded, hidden
hale (noun, singular): nook
iherde (verb, past first person singular): heren, to hear
holde (verb, infinitive): holden, to hold
tale (noun, singular): debate, discussion
hule (noun, singular): oule, owl
plait (noun, singular): ple, quarrel, dispute
stif (adjective): fierce
starc (adjective): stark, violent, intense
lud (adjective): loud, loud
an (conjunction): unstressed form of and
aiþer (pronoun): either
aȝen (preposition): ayen, against
swal (verb, past third person singular): swellen, to swell (with emotion)
wole (adjective): ivel, evil, offensive
mod (noun, singular): mind, thoughts
custe (noun, singular): character
hi (pronoun, third person feminine nominative singular): he,she
wuste (verb, past third person singular): witen, to know
hure (adverb): especially
hi (pronoun, third person nominative plural): they
plaiding (noun, singular): pledinge, (legal) dispute
bigon (verb, past third person singular): biginnen, to begin
hurne (noun, singular): hirne, corner
breche (noun, singular): area of cultivated land, afallow field
vaire (adjective): fair, beautiful
boȝe (noun, singular): bough, branch
blosme (noun, plural): blossom
ore (dative singular feminine form of the indefinitearticle): a
vaste (adjective): fast, secure, impenetrable
hegge (noun, singular): hedge
spire (collective noun): reeds
segge (noun, singular or plural): sedge
ho (pronoun, feminine nominative singular): he, she
gladur (comparative adjective): glad, happy,cheerful
vor (conjunction): for, because of
rise (noun): ris, branch
song (verb, past third person singular): singen, to sing
dreim (noun, singular): drem, joyous sound, music
he (pronoun, third person masculine singular): he,it
ishote (verb, past): sheten, to shoot (forth)
þrote (noun, singular): throte, throat
stoc (noun, singular): stok, tree-stump
þarbiside (adverb): therbiside, close by
eardingstowe (noun, singular): erding, dwelling-place
iseȝ (verb, past third person singular): sen, to see
overse3 (verb, past third person singular): oversen, to look over
me (unstressed form of the indefinite pronoun man):one
lodlich (adjective): lothli, horrible, loathsome
unwiȝt (noun, singular): unwight, monster, evilcreature
iwis (adverb): certainly, indeed
vule (adjective): foul, ugly, disgusting, repulsive
lete (noun, singular): lote, appearance (butsee note)
forlete (verb, present first person singular): forleten,to leave off, abandon
horte (noun, singular): herte, heart
atfliþ (verb, present third person singular): atflen,to flee
ȝoȝelinge (noun): yoȝelinge, hooting, wailing
abod (verb, past third person singular): abiden, to wait
fort (conjunction): forto, until
eve (noun, singular): even, evening
leng (adverb, comparative): longe, long
bileve (verb, infinitive): bileven, to hold back
welne3 (adverb): wel-neigh, nearly
fnast (noun, singular): breath
atschet (verb, past third person singular): atsheten, to drive out
bi (preposition): with regard to
wenst (verb, present second person singular): wenen, to think
cunne (verb, present first person singular): connen, to know (how to)
writelinge (noun, singular): warbling, chirping
ilome (adverb): often
seist (verb, present second person singular): seien,to say
tone (noun, singular): tene, vexation, anger
schame (noun, singular): shame, offence
ȝif (conjunction): if, if
vote (noun, singular): fot, foot
ut (preposition): oute, out
rise (noun, singular): ris, branch
ȝaf (verb, past third person singular): yeven, to give
loki (verb, present first person singular): loken, to defend, to guard
bare (adjective used as noun): (the) open
schilde (verb, present first person singular): shelden,to shield, protect (oneself)
wit (preposition): with, against
blete (adjective used as noun): blet, exposure
reche (verb, present first person singular): recchen,to care
noȝt (adverb): nought, not at all
þrete (noun, singular): thret, threat
hegge (noun, singular): hedge
segge (verb, subjunctive second person singular): seien,to say
wot (verb, present first person singular): witen, to know
unmilde (adjective): cruel, unkind, ungentle
hom (pronoun, third person plural dative): hem, them
muȝe (verb, present third person plural): mouen, to be able to
wroþe (adverb): wrothe, angrily, cruelly
uvele (adverb): ivele, wickedly
fuȝele (noun, plural): foul, bird
vorþi (conjunction): for-thi, therefore, for thatreason
loþ (adjective): loth, hateful (to)
fuelkunne (collective noun): fu el-kun bird-kind
driveþ (verb, present third person plural): driven, to drive
honne (adverb): henne, away
bigredet (verb, present third person plural): bigreden,to shout at
ek (adverb): also
forþe (conjunction): for-thi, for that reason
mose (noun, singular): titmouse
totose (verb, infinitive): totosen, to tear topieces
lodlich (adjective): lothli, ugly, horrible
loþ (adjective): loth, hateful
bodi (noun, singular): body
swore (noun, singular): swire, neck
heved (noun, singular): hed, head
eȝene (noun, plural): eie, eye
colblake (adjective): col-blak, black as coal
brode (adjective): brod, broad, large
ipeint (verb, past participle): peinten, to paint
wode (noun, singular): woad
starest (verb, present second person singular): staren,to stare
abiten (verb, infinitive): to kill by biting, bite todeath
mist (verb, present second person singular): mouen,to be able to
clivre (noun, plural): claue, claw, talon
smiten (verb, infinitive): to strike, smite
bile (noun, singular): bill, beak
hoked (adjective): hooked
owel (noun, singular): oul, a hook
croked (adjective): crooked
þarmid (adverb): ther-mid, in addition
clackes (verb, present second person singular): clakken,to chatter, clack
þretest (verb, present second person singular): threten,to threaten
meshe (verb, infinitive): mashen, to crush
icundur (comparative adjective): kinde, natural
mus (verb, plural): mous, mouse
adai (adverb): a dai, by day
fli3st (verb, present second person singular): flien, to fly
aniȝt (adverb): anightes, by night
cuþest (verb, present second person singular): kithen,to show, make known
unwiȝt (noun, singular): unwight, monster, evilcreature
lodlich (adjective): lothli, hateful, loathsome
unclene (adjective): unclene, unclean
mene (verb, present first person singular): menen, to mean, to intend to convey, to refer to
ek (adverb): ek, also
bi (preposition): bi, about, to
fule (adjective): foul, foul, dirty
brode (noun, singular): brod, brood
fedest (verb, present second person singular): feden,to nuture, to bring up
hom (pronoun, dative plural): hem, them
fode (noun, singular): fode, offspring, brood
wostu (verb + second person singular pronoun thou): witen,to know
doþ (verb, present third person plural): don, to do
fuleþ (verb, present third person plural): foulen, to foul, to soil
chinne (noun, singular): chin, chin
sitteþ (verb, present third person plural): sitten, to sit
bo (verb, present subjunctive plural): ben, to be
bisne (adjective): bisne, dim-sighted, blind
vorbisne (noun, singular): fore-bisne, proverb
dahet (noun, singular): daþeit, curse, misfortune,grief
best (noun, singular): beste, beast, animal
owe (adjective): ouen, own
ȝer (noun, singular): yer, year
faukun (noun, singular): faucoun, falcon
bredde (verb, past third person singular): breden, to breed, to hatch young
bihedde (verb, past third person singular): bihiden, to hide
stele (verb, past second person singular): stelen,to go secretly
leidest (verb, past second person singular): leien, to lay
þaron (adverb): ther-inne, therein, in it
ey (noun, singular): ei, egg
bicom (verb, past third person singular): bicomen, to happen, to come about
haȝte (verb, past third person singular): hacchen, to hatch
eyre (noun, plural): ei, egg
briddes (noun, plural): brid, (young) bird
wraȝte (verb, past third person singular): werken, to make, to bring about
broȝte (verb, past third person singular): bringen, to bring
mete (noun, singular): mete, food
bihold (verb, past third person singular): biholden, to look at
iseȝ (verb, past third person singular): isen, to see
ete (verb, infinitive): eten, to eat
ifuled (verb, past participle): foulen, to foul,to soil
uthalve (adverb): oute-half, outside
wroþ (adjective): wroth, angry
wit (preposition): with, at, with
bridde (noun, plural): brid, young bird
lude (adverb): loude, loudly
ȝal (verb, past third person singular): yellen, to yell
sterne (adverb): sterne, sternly
chidde (verb, past third person singular): chiden, to chide, to scold
segget (verb, imperative plural): seien, to say,to tell
wo (pronoun): who, who
ido (verb, past participle): don, to do
ou (dative form of the second person plural pronoun): you,you
icunde (noun, singular): ikinde, nature
loþe (adjective): loth, hateful, horrible
custe (noun, singular): custe, way, manner
wiste (verb, present second person plural): witen, to know
quaþ (verb, past third person singular): quethen, to say
iwis (adverb): iwis, truly, indeed
ure (possessive first person plural pronoun): oure,our
oȝe (adjective): ouen, own
ȝond (demonstrative pronoun): yond, that oneover there
haved (verb, present third person singular): haven, to have
grete (adjective): gret, big, large
heved (noun, singular): hed, head
worp (verb, imperative singular): werpen, to throw
toberste (verb, present subjunctive singular): tobresten,to break
ilefde (verb, past third person singular): leven, to believe
nom (verb, past third person singular): nimen, to take, to seize
wilde (adjective): wilde, wild
bowe (noun, singular): bough, branch
þar (conjunction): ther, there, where
pie (noun, plural): pie, magpie
crowe (noun, plural): croue, crow
todrowe (verb, past third person plural): todrauen, to tear to pieces
herbi (adverb): her-bi, about this
bispel (noun, singular): bi-spel, fable, parable
also (adverb): also, so, thus
bi (preposition): bi, with, in regard to
ungode (noun, singular): ungod, evil person
fule (adjective): foul, foul, dirty
brode (noun, singular): brod, brood
meind (verb, past participle): mengen, to mix, tobring together
fro (adjective): fre, noble, well-born
monne (noun, plural): man, person
ever (adverb): ever, constantly, all the time
cuþ (verb, present third person singular): kithen,to show
com (verb, present third person singular): comen, to come
þonne (adverb): thenne, from there, i.e. from the‘foul brood’
adel (adjective): adele, addled, rotten
eye (noun, singular): ei, egg
þe3 (conjunction): though, though
leie (verb, present subjunctive singular): lien, to lie
appel (noun, singular): appel, apple
trendli (verb, present subjunctive singular): trendlen,to roll
fron (preposition): from, from
trowe (noun, singular): tre, tree
whonene (adverb): whenne, from where
aȝaf (verb, past third person singular): ayeven, to reply
song (verb, past third person singular): singen, to sing
grulde (verb, past subjunctive singular): grillen, to pluck (a musical instrument)
schille (adjective): shille, loud, resounding
luste (verb, past third person singular): listen, to listen
þiderward (adverb): thiderward, (to the sound coming)in that direction
eȝe (noun, plural): eie, eye
noþerward (adverb): nethereward, downwards
toswolle (verb, past participle): toswellen, to swell
ibolwe (verb, past participle): blouen, to swellup with anger
iswolȝe (verb, past participle): swolwen, to swallow
wiste (verb, past third person singular): witen, to know
iwar (adjective): iwar, aware
bisemar (noun, singular): bi-smare, mockery
noþeles (adverb): no-the-lesse, nevertheless
ȝaf (verb, past third person singular): yeven, to give
andsware (noun, singular): answere, answer
neltu (verb: negation ne + present second personsingular form of willen, to will, to wish + pronoun thou):will you not
flon (verb, infinitive): flien, to fly
bare (noun, singular): bare, the open
sewi (verb, infinitive): sheuen, to show
hwaþer (pronoun): whether, which
unker (dual possessive adjectival pronoun): unker, ofus two
howe (noun, singular): heu, colour, hue
vairur (adjective, comparative): fair, beautiful
blo (noun, singular): ble, appearance
clivers (noun, plural): clivres, claws
suþe (adjective): swithe, very
twengst (verb, present second person singular): twengen,to pinch, to tear
þarmid (adverb): ther-mid, with them
þoȝtest (verb, past second person singular): thinken, to think
biswike (verb, infinitive): biswiken, to deceive,to trick
nolde (verb, negation ne + past first personsingular form of willen, to will, to wish): would not
don (verb, infinitive): to do
raddest (verb, past second person singular): reden, to advise
misraddest (verb, past second person singular): misreden,to give bad advice, to mislead
unwroȝen (verb, past participle): unwrien, to uncover, to expose
swikelhede (noun, singular): swikelhede, deceitfulness,treachery
schild (verb, imperative singular): shelden, to guard, to conceal
swikeldom (noun, singular): swikeldom, deceitfulness,treachery
vram (preposition): from, from
liȝ (noun, singular): light, light
hud (verb, imperative singular): hiden, to hide
woȝe (noun, singular): wough, wickedness,perversity
þane (conjunction): thanne, when
vor (conjunction): for, because
ope (adjective): ope, open, revealed
underȝete (past participle): underyeten, to understand, to see
speddestu (verb, past second person singular + pronoun): speden,to succeed
unwrenche (noun): unwrenche, evil deed, scheme
war (adjective): ware, wary, cautious
blenche (verb, infinitive): blenchen, to dodge, tojump out of the way
to (adverb): to, to o, overly
þriste (adjective): thriste, bold, presumptuous
viȝte (verb, infinitive): fighten, to fight
bet (adverb): bet, better
liste (noun, singular): liste, cunning, strategy
strengþe (noun, singular): strengthe, physical strength
brede (noun, singular): brede, breadth
ek (adverb): ek, also
lengþe (noun, singular): lengthe, length
castel (noun, singular): castel, castle, fortress
god (adjective): god, good
rise (noun, singular): ris, branch
wise (adjective, used as noun): wise, wise person
ac (conjunction): ac, but
cheste (noun, singular): chest, strife, brawling
swiche (adjective): swich, such
boþ (verb, present third person plural): ben, to be
unwerste (adjective): unwreste, petty, of littl avail
faire (adjective): fair, (in describing language)courteous, civil
ysome (adjective): isome, friendly
witute (preposition): withouten, without
bute (preposition): bouten, without
fiȝte (noun, singular): fight, fighting
plaidi (verb, infinitive): pleden, plead, argue
riȝte (noun, singular): right, justice, right
segge (verb, infinitive): seien, to say, to speak
sckile (noun, singular): skil, reason, justice
seme (verb, infinitive): semen, to settle a dispute (between), to reconcile
wot (verb, present first person singular): witen, to know
wis (adjective): wise, wise
war (adjective): ware, knowledgeable, informed
dome (noun, singular): dom, judgement
suþe (adverb): swithe, very
glew (adjective): gleu, wise, clever
unþew (noun, singular): untheu, vice, immorality
loþ (adjective): loth, hateful
insiȝt (noun, singular): insight, wisdom,understanding
schede (verb, infinitive): sheden, to distinguish
woȝe (noun, singular): wough, wrong, wickedness
þuster (noun, singular): thester, darkness
wile (noun, singular): while, while
biþoȝte (verb, past third person singular): bithinken,to reflect, to consider
upbroȝte (verb, past third person singular): upbringen,to bring forth, to speak
granti (verb, present first person singular): graunten,to grant, to permit, to allow
deme (verb, present subjunctive singular): demen, to judge
þe3 (conjunction): though, although
were (verb, past subjunctive singular): ben, to be
wile (noun used as adverb): while, at one time
breme (adjective): breme, wild, fierce
were (verb, past subjunctive plural): ben, to be
oþer (adjective): other, other
wiȝte (noun, plural): wight, creature
gente (adjective): gent, nobly-born, elegant,beautiful
smale (adjective): smal, small, slender
wot (verb, present first person singular): witen, to know
nu (adverb): nou, now
suþe (adverb): swithe, very, very much
acoled (verb, past participle): acolen, to cool down
þe (pronoun, second person prepositional singular): the,you
afoled (verb, past participle): afoled, infatuated,made a fool of
luve (noun, singular): love, love, affection
adun (adverb): adoun, down
legge (verb, present subjunctive singular): leien, to put, to lay
buve (adverb): boven, above
schlatu (verb, past second person singular): schulen, must, shall, be going to + second person singular pronoun þu:you are (not, 'ne' goint to
nevre (adverb): never, never
queme (verb, infinitive): quemen, to please, toflatter
fals (adjective): fals, wrongful
dom (noun, singular): dom, judgement
ripe (adjective): ripe, mature
fastrede (adjective): fast-rede, steadfast in counsel
lust (impersonal verb, present third person singular): lusten,to wish (to do something), to take pleasure in
unrede (noun, singular): unred, foolishness,imprudence
pleie (verb, infinitive): pleien, to play, tohave fun
wile (verb, present third person singular): willen,to wish, to want (to)
al (adjective): al, all, completely
ȝare (adjective): yare, ready
ho (pronoun, feminine nominative singular): he, she
ilorned (verb, past participle): ilernen, to learn,to gain knowledge
aiware (adverb): ai-wher, everywhere
seie (verb, imperative singular): seien, to say,to tell
soþ (noun): soth, truth
wi (interrogative adverb): whi, why
unwiȝtis (noun, plural): unwight, monster, evilcreature
singest (verb, present second person singular): singen,to sing
aniȝt (adverb): anightes, by night
adai (adverb): a dai, by day
wailawai (interjection): wei-la-wei, alas
afere (verb, infinitive): aferen, to frighten
ihereþ (verb, present third person plural): iheren, to hear
ibere (noun, singular): ibere, noise, cry
schirchest (verb, present second person singular): shriken,to shriek
ȝollest (verb, present second person singular): yellen,to yell, to shout
fere (noun, singular): fere, companion
grislich (adjective): grisli, horrible, ugly,frightening
ihere (verb, infinitive): iheren, to hear
wise (adjective, used as noun): wise, wise people
snepe (adjective, used as noun): snepe, fools
ac (conjunction): ac, but
wepe (verb, present second person singular): wepen, to cry, to wail
fli3st (verb, present second person singular): flien, to fly
wundri (verb, present first person singular): wondren,to wonder, to be amazed
evrich (pronoun, used as adjective): everi, every
þing (noun, singular): thing, thing
schuniet (verb, present third person singular): shonen, to shun
riȝt (noun, singular): right, right, goodness
luveþ (verb, present third person singular): loven, to love
þuster (noun, singular): thester, darkness
hatiet (verb, present third person singular): haten, to hate
liȝt (noun, singular): light, light
wis (adjective): wise, wise
wrot (verb, past third person singular): writen, to write
wene (verb, present first person singular): wenen, to think, to believe
dost (verb, present second person singular): don, to do
also (adverb): also, so, thus
havest (verb, present second person singular): haven,to have
aniȝt (adverb): anightes, by night
wel (adverb): wel, very
briȝte (adjective): bright, clear, sharp
sene (noun, singular): sene, sight, vision
daie (noun, singular): dai, day
stareblind (adjective): stare-blind, completely blind
sihst (verb, present second person singular): sen, to see
bow (noun, singular): bough, bough
rind (noun, singular): rinde, bark of a tree
adai (adverb): a dai, by day
oþer (conjunction): other, or
bisne (adjective): bisne, partially blind
vorbisne (noun, singular): fore-bisne, proverb,saying
farþ (verb, present third person singular): faren, to fare, to go
ungode (adjective used as a noun): ungod, wicked person
suþ (verb, present third person singular): seuen, to seek, to follow
gode (noun): god, goodness
ful (adjective): ful, full
uvele (adjective): ivel, evil, wicked
wrenche (noun, plural): wrench, trick
atprenche (verb, infinitive): atprenchen, to escape,to get away from
can (verb, present third person singular): connen,to know
wel (adverb): wel, well
þane (accusative singular masculine form of the definitearticle): than, the
þustre (adjective): thester, dark
wai (noun, singular): wei, way
doþ (verb, present third person plural): don, to do
boþ (verb, present third person plural): ben, to be
cunde (noun, singular): kinde, nature
liȝ (noun, singular): light, light
imunde (noun, singular): iminde, thought, care,concern
luste (verb, past third person singular): listen, to listen
suþe (adverb): swithe, very
longe (adverb): longe, for a long time
oftoned (verb, past participle): oftenen, to anger,to make angry
quaþ (verb, past third person singular): quethen,to say
hattest (verb, present second person singular): hoten,to be called
bet (comparative adverb): bet, better
hoten (verb, infinitive): hoten, to be called
lat (verb, imperative singular): leten, to let,to allow
tunge (noun, singular): tonge, tongue
spale (noun, singular): spale, a rest, a break
wenest (verb, present second person singular): wenen,to believe, to think
oȝe (adjective): ouen, own
nu (adverb): nou, now
þroȝe (noun, singular): throu, turn
bo (verb, imperative singular): ben, to be
stille (adjective): stille, quiet
speke (verb, infinitive): speken, to speak
bon (verb, infinitive): ben, to be
awreke (verb, past participle): awreken, to avenge
lust (verb, imperative singular): listen, to listen
hu (conjunctive adverb): hou, how
con (verb, present first person singular): connen,to be able to
bitelle (verb, infinitive): bitellen, to defend
soþe (noun, singular): soth, truth
witute (preposition): withouten, without
spelle (noun, singular): spel, (idle) talk
hude (verb, present first person singular): hiden, to hide
dai (noun used as adverb): dai, by day
telle (verb, present first person singular): tellen,to tell
þarevore (adverb): ther-fore, regarding that, where that is concerned
wi (adverb): whi, why
warevore (adverb): wher-fore, for what reason
bile (noun, singular): bile, bill, beak
stif (adjective): stif, stiff, hard
gode (adjective): god, good
clivers (noun, plural): clivres, claws
scharp (adjective): sharp, sharp
bicumeþ (impersonal verb, present third person singular): bicomen,to be fitting
havekes (noun, genitive singular): hauk, hawk
cunne (noun, singular): kin, kin, family, species
hiȝte (noun, singular): hight, joy, delight
wunne (noun, singular): win, pleasure, joy
draȝe (verb, present first person singular): drauen,to draw (towards), to take after
kende (noun, singular): kinde, nature
þarevore (adverb): ther-fore, for that
schende (verb, infinitive): shenden, to blame, toreproach, to insult
kene (adjective): kene, fierce, bold
vorþi (conjunction): for-thi, for that reason
loþ (adjective): loth, hateful (to)
foȝle (noun, plural): foul, bird
floþ (verb, present third person plural): flien, to fly
þuvele (noun, singular): thivel, thicket
bichermet (verb, present third person plural): bichirmen,to scream at
bigredeþ (verb, present third person plural): bigreden,to cry out at
hore (pronoun, third person plural possessive): here,their
flockes (noun, plural): flok, flock of birds
ledeþ (verb, present third person plural): leden, to lead
reste (noun, singular): reste, rest, peace
stille (adverb): stille, quietly
neste (noun, singular): nest, nest
nere (negative prefix ne + present subjunctivesingular form of the verb ben, to be): (I) would not be
betere (comparative adjective): bettre, better
þe3 (conjunction): though, though, even if
mid (preposition): mid, with
chauling (noun, singular): chaveling, squabbling,idle talk
chatere (noun, singular): chater, ranting,jabbering
hom (pronoun, third person plural dative): hem, them
schende (verb, subjunctive first person singular): shenden,to insult, to attack
herdes (noun, plural): herde, herdsman, shepherd
doþ (verb, present third person plural): don, to do
oþer (conjunction): other, or
schitworde (noun, plural): shit + word, obscenity,term of abuse
wit (preposition): with, with, against
screwen (noun, plural): shreue, rascal, wicked person
chide (verb, infinitive): chiden, to rebuke, tochide, to argue
forþi (conjunction): for-thi, for that reason
wende (verb, present first person singular): wenden,to go, to travel
wide (adverb): wide, far, a long way
ilome (adverb): ilome, often
wit (preposition): with, with, against
gidie (adjective used as noun): gidi, (the)foolish, fools
ofne (noun): oven, oven
ȝonie (verb, present subjunctive singular): yenen, to gape, to open the mouth widely
siþe (noun): sith, time
herde (verb, past first person singular): heren, to hear
sede (verb, past third person singular): seien, to say
spelle (noun, plural): spel, saying, speech, story
loke (verb, imperative singular): loken, to look, to see to (something), to ensure
bo (verb, present subjunctive singular): ben, to be
chauling (noun, singular): chaveling, idle talk, squabbling
boþ (verb, present third person plural): ben, to be
cheste (noun, singular): chest, strife,contention, brawling
ȝare (adjective): yare, ready, at hand
lat (verb, imperative singular): leten, to let
sottes (noun, plural): sot, fool, idiot
chide (verb, infinitive): chiden, to rebuke, toargue
wis (adjective): wise, wise
also (adverb): also, so, just that
ȝet (adverb): yet, furthermore, also
seide (verb, past third person singular): seien, to say
side (noun): sith, time (but see note)
isprunge (verb, past participle): springen, to spread,to be known
wide (adverb): wide, far and wide
cleine (adjective): clene, pure, undefiled
wenestu (verb, present second person singular form of wenen,to think + second person singular pronoun þu): do you think
haveck (noun, singular): hauk, hawk
bo (verb, subjunctive singular): ben, to be
werse (comparative adverb): werse, worse
crowe (noun, plural): croue, crow
bigrede (verb, present subjunctive plural): bigreden, to shout at, to cry out at
bi (preposition): bi, by, near
mershe (noun, singular): mersh, marsh
goþ (verb, present third person plural): gon, to go
hore (pronoun, third person plural possessive): here,their
chirme (noun, singular): chirm, noise, croaking
schirme (verb, infinitive): skirmen, to fight
folȝeþ (verb, present third person singular): folwen,to follow
rede (noun, singular): red, advice, counsel,wisdom
fliȝt (verb, present third person singular): flien, to fly
wei (noun, singular): wei, way, path, course
grede (verb, infinitive): greden, to shout
seist (verb, present second person singular): seien,to say
þinge (noun, plural): thing, thing
telst (verb, present second person singular): telen,to accuse, to blame
ac (conjunction): ac, but
rorde (noun, singular): rerde, voice
woning (noun, singular): woninge, moaning, wailing
ihire (verb, infinitive): iheren, to hear
grislich (adjective): grisli, horrible
soþ (noun, singular): soth, true, the truth
efne (adverb): even, smoothly, evenly
dreme (noun, singular): drem, melody, harmony
lude (adjective): loud, loud
stefne (noun, singular): stevene, voice
wenist (verb, present second person singular): wenen,to think, to believe
ech (pronoun used as an adjective): ech, each,every
pipinge (noun, singular): pipinge, piping,whistling
ilich (adjective): ilich, like, similar to
bold (adjective): bold, bold, strong
unorne (adjective): unorne, feeble, wretched
grete (adjective): gret, great, large
horne (noun, singular): horn, horn, trumpet
wode (noun, singular): wede, weed, small plant
unripe (adjective): unripe, immature, not fully grown
bet (adverb): bet, better
dest (verb, present second person singular): don, to do
chaterest (verb, present second person singular): chateren,to chatter
doþ (verb, present third person singular): don, to do
prost (noun, singular): prest, priest
eve (noun, singular): even, evening
soþþe (adverb): sitthe, again, a second time
won (conjunction): whanne, when
bedtime (noun, singular): bed + time, time for going to bed
þridde (ordinal number as adjective): thrid, third
siþe (noun): sith, time
so (adverb): so, so, in this way
adiȝte (verb, present first person singular): adighten,to arrange, to set forth
wone (conjunction): whanne, when
iso (verb, present first person singular): isen, to see
arise (verb, infinitive): arisen, to rise
vorre (adverb): afer, far away
dairim (noun, singular): dai + rime, daybreak,dawn
daisterre (noun, singular): dai-sterre, the morningstar
god (noun, singular): god, good, a good deed
þrote (noun, singular): throte, throat
warni (verb, present first person singular): warnen,to exhort, to warn
note (noun, singular or plural): note, advantage,benefit, or duties
ac (conjunction): ac, but
fort (preposition): forto, until
dailiȝt (noun, singular): dai-light, daylight,daytime
evre (adverb): ever, constantly, always
leist (verb, present third person singular): lasten,to go on, to continue
croweþ (verb, present third person singular): crouen,to croak
wrecche (adjective): wrecche, wretched, horrible
crei (noun, singular): craue, throat, craw
swikeþ (verb, present third person singular): swiken,to cease, to stop
adunest (verb, present second person singular): adunen,to fill (the ears) with din, to din into
þas (genitive singular form of the definite article): thas,the
monnes (noun, genitive singular): man, person
earen (noun, plural): ere, ear
þar (adverb): ther, where
wunest (noun, present second person singular): wonen,to live
makest (verb, present second person singular): maken,to make
unwurþ (adjective): unworth, of little value,worthless
telþ (verb, present third person plural): telþ, to consider, to value
wurþ (adjective): worth, value
evrich (pronoun as adjective): everi, every
mur3þe (noun, singular): mirthe, joy, delight,pleasure
mai (verb, present third person singular): mouen, to be able to
ileste (verb, infinitive): lasten, to go on, tocontinue, to last
liki (verb, infinitive): liken, to please
wel (adverb): wel, very
unwreste (adverb): unwreste, badly
vor (conjunction): for, because
fuȝeles (noun, genitive singular): foul, bird
mislikeþ (verb, present third person singular): misliken,to displease, to offend
murie (adjective): mirie, joyful, beautiful,pleasant
þinche (verb, infinitive): thinken, to seem
unmurie (adjective): unmirie, unpleasant, boring,tedious
ilesteþ (verb, present third person singular): lasten,to go on, to continue, to last
so (adverb): so, thus, in this way
aspille (verb, infinitive): aspillen, to waste, tospoil
vor (conjunction): for, because
soþ (noun): soth, true, the truth
seide (verb, past third person singular): seien, to say
boke (noun, plural): bok, book
rede (verb, infinitive): reden, to read
evrich (pronoun as adjective): everi, every
þing (noun, singular): thing, thing
losen (verb, infinitive): losen, to lose
godhede (noun, singular): godhede, worth,usefulness, value
mid (preposition): mid, with, by, as a resultof
unmeþe (noun, singular): unmethe, immoderation,excess
overdede (noun, singular): overdede, excess,intemperance, overdoing it
este (noun, singular): este, pleasure, good food
overquatie (verb, infinitive): overquaten, to surfeit,to satiate, to glut
overfulle (noun, singular): overfulle, surfeit,over-indulgence
wlatie (verb, infinitive): wlaten, to become nauseated, to feel disgust
an (conjunction): and, and
mure3þe (noun, singular): mirthe, joy, delight,pleasure
agon (verb, infinitive): agon, pass away, come to an end
halt (verb, present third person singular): holden,to continue, to go on
bute (conjunction): but, except for
Godes (noun, genitive singular): God, God
riche (noun, singular): riche, kingdom
evre (adverb): ever, ever, always
swete (adjective): swete, sweet, lovely
iliche (adjective): ilich, the same, unchanging
Þeȝ (conjunction): though, though, even if
nime (verb, present subjunctive singular): nimen, to take
of (preposition): of, from, out of
lepe (noun, singular): lep, basket
ful (adjective): ful, full
wunder (noun, singular): wonder, marvel, wondrous thing
spenþ (verb, present third person singular): spenen,to spend, to give
ȝut (adverb): yet, furthermore, also
seist (verb, present second person singular): seien,to say
shome (noun, singular): shame, shame, source of disgrace
eȝen (noun, plural): eie, eye
lome (adjective): lame, weak, feeble
an (conjunction): and, and
flo (verb, present first person singular): flien, to fly
niȝte (noun, singular): night, night
mai (verb, present first person singular): mouen, to be able to
iso (verb, infinitive): isen, to see
liȝ (noun, singular): light, light
liest (verb, present second person singular): lien, to lie
habbe (verb, present first person singular): haven, to have
gode (adjective): god, good
sene (noun, singular): sene, eyesight, vision
vor (preposition): for, for, because
dim (adjective): dim, dark, murky
þusternesse (noun, singular): thesternesse, darkness
lasse (adverb): lesse, less
wenest (verb, present second person singular): wenen,to think, to believe
daie (noun, singular): dai, day
hare (noun, singular): hare, hare
luteþ (verb, present third person singular): louten,to hide, to skulk
al (adjective): al, all
ac (conjunction): ac, but
noþeles (adverb): ne-the-les, nonetheless
ȝif (conjunction): if, if, when
hundes (noun, plural): hound, hound
urneþ (verb, present third person plural): rennen, to run
gengþ (verb, present third person singular): gon, to go
aweyward (adverb): awei-ward, away, in another direction
hokeþ (verb, present third person singular): hoken, to take a winding path, to turn this way and that
paþes (noun, plural): path, path, track
swiþe (adverb): swithe, very
narewe (adjective): narwe, narrow, winding
haveþ (verb, present third person singular): haven, to have
blenches (noun, plural): blench, trick, ruse
ȝarewe (adjective): yare, ready, at hand
hupþ (verb, present third person singular): hippen,to hop, to leap
stard (verb, present third person singular): sterten,to jump, to dart about
suþe (adverb): swithe, very
cove (adverb): cof, swiftly
an (conjunction): and, and
secheþ (verb, present third person singular): sechen,to seek out
grove (noun, singular): thicket, small wood
eȝe (noun, plural): eie, eye
don (verb, infinitive): to do
bet (adverb): bet, better
niseȝe (verb, present subjunctive): ne + isen, to not be able to see
mai (verb, present first person singular): mouen, to be able to
ison (verb, infinitive): isen, to see
Þeȝ (conjunction): though, though
sitte (verb, present first person singular): sitten,to sit
an (conjunction): and, and
dare (verb, present first person singular): daren, to stay in one place
þar (adverb): ther, where
aȝte (adjective): ought, brave, warlike
boþ (verb, present third person plural): ben, to be
worre (noun, singular): were, war
fareþ (verb, present third person plural): faren, to travel
boþe (adjective): bothe, both
ner (adverb): ner, near
forre (adverb): fer, far
overvareþ (verb, present third person plural): overfaren,to travel across
fele (adjective): fele, many
þode (noun, plural): thede, country, land,nation
node (noun, plural): nede, deed, action
folȝi (verb, present first person singular): folwen,to follow, to accompany
þan (demonstrative adjective, dative plural): than,those
manne (noun, plural): man, man
flo (verb, present first person singular): flien, to fly
hore (pronoun, third person plural possessive): here,their
banne (noun, singular): ban, troop, army
Iherde… niȝtingale: ‘I heard an owl and a nightingale hold a great debate’
Sumwile… among:‘at times soft, at times loud’
aiþer aȝen oþer swal: ‘each swelled with rage against the other’
let þat wole mod ut al: ‘let out all her offensive thoughts’
Þat alre worste:genitive plural form of all +superlative adjective = ‘the worst of all, the very worst’
hure and hure:‘especially, most of all’
Þar were abute blosme inoȝe: ‘there was plenty of blossom around (it)’
imeind mid:‘mingled with’, ‘interspersed with’ (see MED imengen (v.) ‘to mix’)
a vele cunne wise: ‘in many kinds of ways’
bet þuȝte… þan he nere: ‘that music seemed rather to come from harp and pipe than from anything else’ (nere = ne + were, ‘was not’)
bet þuȝte… þan of þrote: ‘it seemed rather to be sent forth from harp and pipe than from a throat’
mid ivi al bigrowe: ‘all overgrown with ivy’
hit was þare hule eardingstowe: ‘that was the owl’s dwelling-place’
þuȝte wel vul of þare hule: ‘everything about the owl seemed repulsive to her’(literally ‘it seemed (to her) repulsive with regard to the owl’)
for me hi halt:‘because she is considered’
awei þu flo:‘fly away!’
Me is þe wurs þat ich þe so: ‘I am the worse for seeing you’
wel oft ich mine song forlete: ‘I often have to stop singing’
falt mi tonge:‘my tongue fails’
wonne þu art to me iþrunge: ‘when you are thrust upon me’
me luste bet speten þane singe: ‘I would rather spit than sing’
Vor hire horte… fnast atschet: ‘for her heart was so swollen with anger that she could hardly breathe’ (literally ‘it almost drove out her breath’)
warp a word:‘spoke’ (see note)
þarafter longe:either ‘a long time later’ or ‘finally’
hu þincþe:‘how does it seem to you’; þincþeformed from þincþ (from MED thinken (v.1)) + þe (second person singular pronoun), runtogether
wenst þu… writelinge: ‘do you think that I cannot sing, because I know nothing about warbling?’
þu dest me grame: ‘you do me harm’
ich þe holde on mine vote: ‘if I held you in my claws’
So hit bitide þat ich mote: ‘may it so happen that I might’
tukest… over:‘tousle all over’ (from tuken, to torment; see note)
whar þu miȝt:‘wherever you can’
alle ho þe driveþ honne: ‘they (i.e. birds) all drive you away’
þe bischricheþ and bigredet: ‘shriek and shout at you’
wel narewe þe biledet: ‘pursue you very closely’
hire þonkes:‘gladly, willingly’
in monie volde:‘in many respects’
grettere is þin heved þan þu al: ‘your head is bigger than the whole of the rest of you’
riȝt swo ho weren: ‘just as if they were’
so þu wille abiten: ‘as if you intend to bite to death’
þu þretest to mine fleshe... meshe: ‘you make threats against my person, that you will crush me with your claws’
icundur… under cogge: ‘you would have more natural (liking) for a frog sitting under amill-wheel’
fule wiȝte:‘vermin’ (literally ‘foul creatures’; see MED wight (n.), 1 (d)).
bi þine neste ich hit mene: ‘I am referring to your nest’
þu fedest on hom a wel ful fode: ‘in them you are bringing up a very foul brood’
wel wostu þat hi doþ þarinne: ‘you know well what they do in there’
ho sitteþ þar so hi bo bisne: ‘they sit there as if they are blind’
Þarbi men segget a vorbisne: ‘there is a proverb about this’
dahet habbe þat ilke best: ‘cursed be that creature’
in o dai:‘one day’
þo hit bicom:‘when it happened’
and of his eyre briddes wraȝte: ‘and brought forth chicks out of the eggs’
iseȝ hi ete:‘saw them eat’
bi one halve:‘on one side’
wo havet þis ido?: ‘who has done this?’
ou nas never icunde þarto: ‘it was never your nature to do that’
hit was idon ou a loþe custe: ‘you have been treated in a horrible way’
þo quaþ þat on and quad þat oþer: ‘then one said and the other said’ i.e. ‘they all said’
þe ȝond, þat haved þat grete heved: ‘the one over there, with the big head’
wai þat he nis þarof bireved: ‘it’s a pity that it hasn’t been cut off!’
þat his necke him toberste: ‘so that he breaks his neck’
herbi men segget a bispel: ‘there is a fable about this’
is meind wit fro monne: ‘is brought together with noble people’
þe3 he a fro nest leie: ‘though he lie in a noble nest’
þar he and oþer mid growe: ‘where it grew along with others’
þe3 he bo þarfrom bicume: ‘though he may have come (some distance) from there’
riȝt so me grulde schille harpe: ‘as if someone were strumming a ringing harp’
also ho hadde one frogge iswolȝe: ‘as if she had swallowed a frog’
þat ho song hire a bisemar: ‘that she (the nightingale) sang in mockery of her(the owl)’
sewi hwaþer unker bo of briȝter howe: ‘show which of us two is brighter in colouring’
ne kep ich noȝt þat þu me clawe: ‘I have no wish for you to claw at me’
so doþ a tonge:‘like a pair of tongs’
so doþ þine ilike: ‘as your sort do’
þat þu me raddest: ‘what you advised me’
schamie þe for þin unrede: ‘shame on you for your bad advice’
among þe riȝte:‘among right-thinking people’
Þane þu... isene: ‘if you want to practise wickedness, make sure it is not seen’
haved schome and hete: ‘attracts shame and hatred’
Ne speddestu noȝt:‘you won't succeed’
Ne helpþ noȝt:‘it is no use’
Wel fiȝt þat wel fliȝt: literally ‘he fights well who flees well’; the sense is ‘running away may be the best way to fight’
let we awei þos cheste: ‘let us leave off this arguing’
fo we on:‘let us take up’, ‘let us begin’
mid riȝte dome:‘with the proper procedure’
mid faire worde and mid ysome: ‘in courteous and friendly language’
Þeȝ we ne bo at one acorde: ‘though we are not in agreement’
muȝe bet:‘should rather’
ur eiþer:‘each of us’
Þat kunne and wille riȝt us deme: ‘who is able and willing to judge us fairly’
Ne þaref þarof bo no tale: ‘there is no need for any discussion about it’
of worde:‘in his words’
him is loþ evrich unþew: ‘every sin is hateful to him’
Wo singet wel, wo singet wronge: ‘who sings well, who sings badly’
one wile hi biþoȝte: ‘considered this for a while’
after þan:‘then’
lof him:‘dear to him’ (MED lef (adj.))
Nis he vor þe… buve: ‘he is not so infatuated by you that because of your old love he will cast me down and raise you up’
Ne schaltu nevre… fals dom deme: ‘you shall never be able to flatter him so much that he will make a false judgement for you’
Ne lust him nu to none unrede: ‘he has no wish for foolishness now’
Nu him ne lust na more pleie: ‘he doesn’t want to play around any more’
gon a riȝte weie: ‘follow the right path’
Wi dostu þat unwiȝtis doþ: ‘why do you do what evil creatures do?’
Hit þincheþ boþe wise and snepe: ‘it seems to both wise men and fools’, i.e. to everyone
Þarof ich wundri, and wel mai: ‘I wonder about that, and well I may’
evrich þing þat is lof misdede: literally ‘every thing to whom wrongdoing is dear’,i.e. ‘every creature who loves doing wrong’
to his dede:‘for its deeds’, ‘for what it does’
þe3 hit bo unclene: ‘though it is unclean/indelicate’
fele manne a muþe imene: ‘is common in the mouths of many men’
He schunet þat hine vul wot: ‘he who knows himself to be foul keeps away’
ever mo: ‘at all times’
An oþer þing me is a wene: ‘another thing occurs to me’
ne bow ne rind:‘neither bough nor tree-bark’
Þarbi men segget a vorbisne: ‘there is a proverb about this’
Riȝt so hit farþ bi þan ungode: ‘it happens this way with the wicked person’
Þat noȝt ne suþ to none gode: ‘who never does anything good’
him ne mai no man atprenche: ‘no one can get away from him’
þane briȝte lat awai: ‘avoids the bright (way)’
So doþ þat boþ of þine cunde: ‘so do they who are of your nature’
nabbeþ hi none imunde: ‘they have no concern at all’
Vor þu havest to monie tale: ‘because you have too much to say’, ‘because you talk too much’
Lat þine tunge habbe spale: ‘give your tongue a rest’
þat þes dai bo þin oȝe: ‘that the day is your own’
Lat me nu habbe mine þroȝe: ‘now let me have my turn’
þat ich me hude dai: ‘that I hide myself by day’
Þarto ne segge ich nich ne nai: literally ‘to that I say neither no nor nay’, i.e.‘I do not deny that at all’
So hit bicumeþ to havekes cunne: ‘as is fitting for the kin of a hawk’
Þat ich me draȝe to mine kende: ‘that I take after my kind’
Ne mai me no man þarevore schende: ‘nor may anyone blame me for that’
On me hit is wel isene: ‘it is very obviously shown in me’
Vor riȝte cunde:‘because of my nature’
Þat floþ bi grunde an bi þuvele: ‘which fly along the ground and in thickets’
Me is lof:‘I like’, ‘I prefer’
nere ich never no þe betere: ‘I would never be any better-off’
Ne lust me wit þe screwen chide: ‘I don’t want to argue with wicked people’
a wise monne dome: ‘the opinion of wise men’
hi hit segget wel ilome: ‘they say it very often’
me ne chide wit þe gidie: ‘one should not argue with fools’
ne wit þan ofne me ne ȝonie: ‘nor try to gape against an oven’
At sume siþe:‘on one occasion’
þare þar:‘there where’, ‘in the place where’
vorþ þu go:‘go somewhere else’, ‘walk away’
þat wit þe fule… cleine: ‘he who has dealings with a dirty person never comes away clean’
fliȝt his wei and lat hi grede: ‘goes his way and leaves them to shout’
ȝet þu me seist of oþer þinge: ‘you speak to me about other things’ or ‘you make other accusations about me’
to ihire grislich þing: ‘a horrible thing to hear’
Þu wenist… nis ilich: ‘you think every song is horrible which isn’t like your piping’
þin is ilich one pipe: ‘yours is like a pipe’
so doþ on Irish prost: ‘like an Irish priest’
an eve: ‘in the evening’
a riȝte time:‘at the proper time’
a middelniȝte:‘at midnight’
Oþer dairim oþer daisterre: ‘either daybreak or the morning star’
alle longe niȝt:‘all night long’
leist þin o song: ‘your one song goes on’
So longe so þe niȝt is long: ‘as long as the night lasts’
Þat he ne swikeþ niȝt ne dai: ‘so that it does not stop by night or day’
Þat me ne telþ of þar noȝt wurþ: ‘that people consider it of no value at all’
Evrich mur3þe… wel unwreste: ‘every pleasure may last so long that it becomes very unpleasant’
Mislikeþ ȝif hit is to long: ‘begins to be displeasing if it is too long’
Ne bo… þinche wel unmurie: ‘however delightful the song is, it will seem very tedious’
ȝef he ilesteþ ure unwille: ‘if it continues to our displeasure’, i.e. ‘until we are tired of it’
me hit mai ine boke rede: ‘it can be read in books’
Mid este… wlatie: ‘you can surfeit yourself with pleasure, and intemperance makes for disgust’
ȝif me hit halt evre forþ in on: ‘if it goeson always without a break’
Þeȝ þu nime… bi hepe: ‘though you take from that basket, it is always full to overflowing’
Wunder hit is… ever is iliche: ‘this is a wondrous property of God’s kingdom, that it is ever giving and yet is always unchanged’
þu me seist on oþer shome: ‘you say another shameful thing about me’
for þat ich flo bi niȝte: ‘because I fly by night’
On me hit is isene: ‘it’s obvious in me’
nis non so dim þusternesse: ‘there is no darkness so dim’
Vor ich bi daie noȝt ne flo: ‘because I do not fly by day’
iso he mai:‘he is able to see’
to himward:‘towards him’
wel swiþe: ‘very quickly’
hokeþ paþes swiþe narewe: ‘veers away by very winding paths’
haveþ mid him his blenches ȝarewe: ‘keeps his tricks ready at hand’
Ne sholde… þe bet niseȝe: ‘he would not do that – not for both his eyes! – if he could not see well’
so wel so on hare: ‘as well as a hare’
in worre:‘at war’
doþ bi niȝte gode node: ‘perform great deeds by night’
Ich was in one sumere dale: the setting in a warm pastoral scene is conventional in Middle English debate poetry, of which ‘The Owl and the Nightingale’ is an early example; however, the word ‘summer’ in Middle English had a wider meaning than the modern equivalent, and references to blossom later in the poem might suggest ‘spring’ as a better translation (see MED somer (n.1)).
tale: although ME ‘tale’ could refer to any narrative, spoken or written, it also had a formal legal meaning (see MED tale (n.), 4(c)); this is the first example of the poem’s use of vocabulary with legal overtones to characterise the debate between the owl and the nightingale. Other instances of such vocabulary occur in ll.5, 12, 13, 179, 210.
An hule and one niȝtingale: the use of an owl and a nightingale to represent opposing viewpoints or modes of life is conventional, found in classical literature as well as medieval French poetry; for examples, see The Owl and the Nightingale: Text and Translation, ed. Neil Cartlidge (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2003), Appendix A, pp.96-8.
stif and starc and strong: these three words are often collocated in Middle English, especially in alliterative poetry (see MED stark (adj.) 2 (a) and stif (adj.)); cf. Havelok, ed. G. V. Smithers (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), ll.609, 989, 1272, 2535.
hi: both birds are female; the usual form of the female pronoun in this poem is ho (which first appears in l.19).
speche: like plaiding in the previous line, this word has overtones of formal legal diction (though, like tale in l.3, it is of Old English rather than French origin)
in one hurne of one breche: breche is the reading of the earlier of the two manuscripts of the poem, British Library MS. Cotton Caligula A ix (C); the other manuscript, Jesus College, Oxford MS 29 (J) has beche, ‘beech’. Brech is derived from OE bræc, ‘land broken up for cultivation’; the whole phrase means ‘in a corner of a ploughed field’. Brechehurne is also found as a place-name (see MED breche (n) 6).
one vaire boȝe… blosme inoȝe: this the first connection of the nightingale with spring and its attributes, which the nightingale will go on to defend in her speech.
vaste: this spelling of fast with /v/ for initial /f/ is a characteristic feature of the poem’s dialect. vaste is the reading of MS J; MS C has waste, ‘deserted’.
he: since nouns at this period still commonly had grammatical gender, this is the masculine pronoun to go with dreim, which is a masculine noun (OE dream).
tide: the canonical hours of prayer, sung at regular intervals throughout the day and night by monks, nuns and priests (MED tide (n.), 3b (b)). The owl refers to these hours again at ll.323-30.
mid ivi al bigrowe: the ivy of the owl’s dwelling-place, associated with winter and decay, contrasts with the spring blossom which surrounds the nightingale.
for me hi halt lodlich and fule: this statement about a generally negative human attitude towards the owl may be a reference to the idea that an owl is an omen of bad fortune (cf. Chaucer, The Parliament of Fowls, l.343, in The Riverside Chaucer, ed. Larry D. Benson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 3rd edition: ‘the oule ek, that of deth the bode bryngeth’).
lete: this word can mean both ‘outward appearance’ and ‘noise’, specifically the cry of a bird; both are possible meanings in this context (see MED lote (n.), 1(c), 3(a)).
abod fort hit was eve: presumably a reference to the fact that owls sing at night, unlike nightingales, which sing by night and day. From this point on the debate takes place over the course of one night, concluding in the morning with the dawn chorus (ll.1658-66).
warp a word: literally ‘threw a word’ (from MED werpen (v.), to throw), but a common formulaic expression meaning ‘to make a speech’.
writelinge: as an insulting caricature of the other bird’s song, this should be compared with ȝoȝelinge in l.40.
Þu sholdest singe an oþer wise: wise can mean both ‘manner’ and ‘song’; this line could mean either ‘you would sing in another way’ or ‘you would sing another tune’ (cf. l.20). Since sing another song is attested as a metaphorical expression in ME (see MED song (n.), 4(b)), the double meaning may be intentional.
ne reche ich noȝt: a double negative in Middle English frequently acts as an intensifier: the meaning is ‘I do not care at all’. In this case, never in l.60 has the same function, i.e. ‘not at all’.
tukest... over smale fuȝele: editors have interpreted this phrase in a number of ways, as tuken over appears only in this text. Grattan (in The Owl and the Nightingale, ed. J. H. G. Grattan and G. F. H. Sykes (London: Oxford University Press, 1935), EETS e.s. 119) took over-smale to be a compound with the meaning ‘exceedingly small’, while Joseph Hall (in Selections from Early ME 1130-1250 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1920)) emended over to oþer, ‘other’. For the case for the reading ‘tousle all over’, see Stanley’s note in his edition, The Owl and the Nightingale, ed. E. G. Stanley (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1972), p.106, and Cartlidge, p.109.
and alle ho þe driveþ honne... biledet: these lines refer to the ‘mobbing’ or attacking of owls by other birds, which is sometimes found as a theme in medieval art; such a scene is depicted in a carved misericord from Norwich Cathedral and a roof boss from Sherborne Abbey in Dorset. Medieval bestiaries sometimes discuss the mobbing of the owl by other birds as an allegory for the just hostility of the righteous towards the sinner; see for instance the bestiary translated by Richard Barber in Bestiary: being an English version of the Bodleian Library, Oxford M.S. Bodley 764 (London: Folio Society, 1992), p.149. The owl herself speaks about being mobbed at ll.277-286.
þe sulve mose: ‘the titmouse herself’, i.e. ‘even the titmouse’, one of the smallest of the birds, is involved in the mobbing of the owl.
lodlich to biholde: it has been argued that the nightingale’s point-by-point description of the owl’s physical ugliness is a parody of a conventional trope, the head-to-toe catalogue which medieval rhetoricians recommended as the best way of constructing a literary portrait; see Derek Brewer, ‘The Ideal of Feminine Beauty in Medieval Literature’, Modern Language Review 50 (1955), 257-69, and Elizabeth Williams, ‘Blossom in the Breach: Some Comments on the Language of Spring in The Owl and the Nightingale’, Leeds Studies in English 12 (1981), 163-83.
wode: woad is a blue dye obtained from plant matter.
mist: this may be an error for miȝt, the usual form of the present second person singular of mouen in this part of the manuscript.
owel: the metal hook known as an oul was an instrument of torture, and the word is often used in hagiography for the hooks carried by devils or the tormentors of saints; cf. Ancrene Wisse, ‘he bodeð hu þe deoflen schulen pleien wið him mid hare scharpe eawles’ (Ancrene Wisse: A Corrected Edition of the Text in Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 402 with Variants from other Manuscripts, ed. Bella Millett, EETS o.s. 325 and 326 (Oxford, 2005-2006), vol. i, p.81).
þat is on of þine songe: perhaps ‘that is all your song consists of’, taking on to mean ‘only’, i.e. ‘all there is’; however, this is the only example of this idiom in ME, and the line could also be read simply as ‘that is one of your songs’.
þat sit at mulne under cogge: under a mill-wheel seems to have been regarded as the natural habitat of a frog, cf. the fable of the mouse and the frog by Marie de France (see The Fables of Marie de France, ed. Mary Lou Martin (Birmingham, Alabama: Summa Publications, 1984), no. III, pp.36-42). The point of the reference to the frog is that it, like snails, mice and other vermin, are to be regarded as the proper food of the owl. This line is missing from MS. C and has been supplied from J.
boþ þine cunde and þine riȝte: ‘(belong to you) both by your nature and by your right’; i.e. such a foul creature as the owl should eat only vermin and other unpleasant creatures.
Hi fuleþ hit up to þe chinne: medieval bestiaries note that the owl fouls its own nest, an allegory for sinners whose wicked behaviour is a bad example to others. Belief in the owl as an unclean animal is found in the Bible (Leviticus 11:16), where it is listed among birds which are unfit to eat, and in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, V, ll.549-50. The expression “fowle as an owle” seems to have been proverbial in ME.
vorbisne: the proverb quoted here appears in Latin, English, French and many other languages. It occurs in an Anglo-Norman fable of the owl and the hawk, where the owl’s child fouls the hawk’s nest, illustrating the idea that “so it is with many people who are born of base lineage: whenever they are in high places... or in the polite world, or in noble bearing, they always come back to their station and to their nature to which they are born” (translated by Stanley in The Owl and the Nightingale, Appendix, p.164). Marie de France has a similar fable, which also concludes that nature is stronger than nurture (see The Fables of Marie de France, ed. Mary Lou Martin, pp.206-9).
This is the first of numerous proverbs and fables quoted by the owl and the nightingale in support of their arguments; it is appropriate that they begin with bird-fables.
faukun: the word falcon is grammatically masculine, but the bird here is clearly conceived of as feminine; both masculine (his, he) and feminine (ho) pronouns are used for the falcon in this passage, most noticeably in l.107, ho broȝte his briddes mete. Cartlidge observes that the falcon in similar fables is usually male, and that “the reason for this is that the fable is implicitly concerned with the medieval practice of fostering adolescent sons out to other families (particularly more noble and more influential ones) and, as such, is concerned with social relationships between men” (Cartlidge, p.110).
briddes: in OE brid referred only to the young of a bird (the general term for bird in OE was fugol) and it still had this meaning in Early Middle English. Later in the ME period it took on a broader range of meaning, encompassing mature birds as well as chicks.
mid þe alre wurste: possibly ‘with the worst of all’ but some editors have chosen to adopt the reading of MS. J, þe vyrste, ‘at first’, perhaps an idiomatic way of saying ‘at once, immediately’. On this construction with alre cf. l.10.
amidde: either ‘by the middle’ or ‘from amongst them’; both are possible readings and both make sense in this context.
Þeȝ hit ne bo fuliche spel: Stanley took fuliche to mean ‘full-length’, i.e. the fable is only a short one. However, if fuliche is read as an adverb rather than an adjective, it could mean ‘completely, entirely’; this would give the meaning ‘though it is not entirely a fable’, i.e. it is not only a story, but happens in nature (see the MED entries for fulli, adv. and adj.).
ungode: in the context of these lines the usual meaning of this word, ‘wicked person’, seems less appropriate than an otherwise unrecorded interpretation, ‘low-born person’, as in the parallel Anglo-Norman fable; this would make a better contrast with fro, ‘noble’, but perhaps the emphasis here is on moral qualities rather than social behaviour.
Þeȝ appel trendli fron þon trowe: the proverbial saying about the apple which falls from the tree also occurs in the fable of the hawk and the owl by Marie de France, and in the Anglo-Norman version by Nicholas Bozon; cf. also Matthew 7:17.
he: the use of the masculine pronoun for the apple may be an instance of the preservation of grammatical gender (OE æppel was a masculine noun), or, as Cartlidge suggests, “he could also be taken to refer not so much to the apple as to the person for whom it stands” in the fable (Cartlidge, p.111).
Whi neltu flon into þe bare: this part of the birds’ conversation, in which the owl tries to tempt the nightingale into the open by appealing to her vanity, is probably inspired by an animal fable such as Marie de France’s story of the cock and the fox. In this fable, a fox attempts to catch a vain cock by pretending to praise his beautiful voice. The fable is also the basis of Chaucer’s Nun’s Priest’s Tale. The lesson of the fable is not to trust to flattery; the nightingale is wiser than Chanticleer, and is not fooled by the owl’s trick.
unker: early ME still had a dual pronoun, of which this is the possessive form (used here because it follows hwaþer, ‘which’). The nominative case of the dual pronoun is wit.
Schild þine swikeldom vram þe liȝe: the nightingale’s advice that the owl should conceal her wickedness is heavily sarcastic.
Ich wolde viȝte bet... þine strengþ: the opposition between cunning and physical strength (liste and strengþe) was proverbial.
Wel fiȝt þat wel fliȝt: this was a common proverb; for references, see Stanley, pp.160-3. This pragmatic attitude towards the wisdom of running away appears in several animal fables: in the fable of the Hare and the Wolf, as told by Nicholas Bozon, the hare challenges the wolf to a fight, knowing the wolf is the stronger animal, but wins by running away (see Les contes moralisés de Nicole Bozon, ed. Lucy Toulmin-Smith and Paul Meyer (Paris: Firmin Didot, 1889), p.28).
seiþ þe wise: this is a common way of introducing a proverb in medieval French and English literature. Unlike the sayings attributed later in the poem to King Alfred (see note to l.235), this proverb is anonymous, but it seems likely that the poet took his proverbial sayings from written texts, rather than from oral tradition. On proverbs in The Owl and the Nightingale, see Elizabeth Gee, ‘The Function of Proverbial Material in The Owl and the Nightingale’, Parergon 24 (1979), 3-8.
foȝe: this is the reading of MS. J. The reading of C, soȝe, may be an error for soþe ‘truth’, which frequently collocates with riȝte (cf. ll.668, 950) and might therefore be expected in this context. However, editors have generally preferred the reading of J: though foȝe is a rare word, it is possible as a derivation of OE gefōg ‘fitness, propriety’. This line would thus mean something like ‘plead with propriety and decorum’, ‘plead in a fit and proper way’.
Maister Nichole of Guldeforde: many critics have seen this as a sly reference to the poem’s author. Both the birds praise Nicholas’ wisdom and good sense, and at the end of the poem, when they fly off to seek his judgement of their debate, they agree that his superiors ought to be ashamed of themselves for not promoting him to a better position (ll.1746-1780). This reads like a subtle plea for preferment, either by Nicholas on his own behalf or by a poet who was his friend. The title maister suggests that Nicholas held a university degree, and the last lines of the poem indicate that he was living in the village of Portesham in Devon, apparently as a country priest. There have been attempts to identify Nicholas of Guildford with various historical figures, but no conclusive evidence in favour of any of them (for a summary of the candidates, see Cartlidge, Appendix E, pp.101-2, and for more extended discussion see The Owl and the Nightingale, ed. J. W. H. Atkins (New York: Russell and Russell, 1971), pp.xxxviii-xlvi).
other wiȝte gente and smale: ‘gente and smale’ is a conventional phrase typically applied to beautiful women in ME poetry (see for instance the Miller’s Tale, I 3234); the (perhaps self-mocking) implication is that Nicholas spent his youth infatuated with young and pretty creatures like the nightingale, but has now grown mature and wise.
Nu him ne lust na more pleie: Cartlidge observes, “If Nicholas was indeed the poet, then his supposed unwillingness to be playful is contradicted by the very existence of his poem about a trivial dispute between two talking birds” (Cartlidge, p.53). All the poem’s praise of Nicholas has an undercurrent of humour; although doubtless sincere, it is not to be taken too seriously.
grislich to ihere: the mournfulness of the owl’s cry was noted by Pliny (Natural History, X, xvi, 34, ed. H. Rackham (London: Heinemann, 1938-1963), vol.iii, p.314).
boþe wise and snepe: this is an example of a rhetorical figure of speech called a merism, in which a thing is referred to by naming two of its contrasting parts. Here ‘wise and fools’ means ‘everyone’; cf. modern expressions such as ‘searching high and low’ i.e. ‘everywhere’, or ‘young and old’, i.e. everyone. See Lawrence L. Besserman, ‘Merisms in Middle English Poetry’, Annuale Mediaevale 17 (1976), 58-69.
evrich þing þat schuniet riȝt: the nightingale appeals to the idea of the owl as the type of the sinner, often found in medieval bestiaries (see for instance Bestiary, ed. Barber, pp.147-9: “The screech-owl is an image of all those who yield to the darkness of sin and flee the light of justice”, p.148). For the association between the owl, darkness, and moral wickedness, cf. also Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy, IV, prose 4 (ed. and trans. by Stewart et al. in The Theological Tractates (London: Heinemann, 1973), p.346; Walter Map, De Nugis Curialium, ed. and trans. by M.R. James; revised by C.N.L. Brooke and R.A.B. Mynors (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), p.12; and Geoffrey Chaucer, Parliament of Fowls, ll.599-602.
Alvred king hit seide and wrot: King Alfred (d.899) was the supposed author of a collection of proverbs in Middle English verse, which is quoted several times in The Owl and the Nightingale. This collection, which is of twelfth or thirteenth century origin and survives in four main versions, was probably attributed to Alfred because of his reputation for wisdom; the proverbs are drawn from many sources, including the Old Testament and the sayings of Cato, and treat a range of subjects including the qualities of a good king, the transience of human life, the importance of trust in God, and the best way to choose a wife. Not all of the proverbs attributed to Alfred in The Owl and the Nightingale can be found in the surviving texts of The Proverbs of Alfred, but one version of the Proverbs is found alongside The Owl and the Nightingale in Jesus MS. 29 (this version is edited by Elaine Treharne in Old and Middle English c.890-c.1450: An Anthology, 3rd edition (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp.443-455).
He schunet þat hine vul wot: this seems to refer back to the nightingale’s previous insults about the uncleanness of the owl; this may be why she calls it ‘unclene’. For the proverb, see Bartlett Jere Whiting, Proverbs, Sentences and Proverbial Phrases from English Writings Mainly Before 1500 (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), S290.
ne bow ne rind: this is an editorial emendation, since neither of the manuscripts has a satisfactory reading: MS. C reads bos ne strind (altered by a different hand to bov ne strind) and J has bouh of lynd. The s in C’s bos may be the scribe’s misreading of a yogh; as J’s bouh confirms, the exemplar probably read boȝ, ‘bough’. Stanley suggested that strind might be an example of dittography, if the scribe accidentally repeated the st- from stareblind in the line above (Stanley, p.110). The scribe of J may have misunderstood the line and attempted to make sense of it: that reading would mean ‘bough of a linden-tree’, which seems unnecessarily specific. The general idea is that the owl is so short-sighted she cannot even see the bough or the bark of the tree she is sitting on.
Adai þu art blind: the erroneous belief that owls have poor sight in the daytime is also referenced by Chaucer in the Parliament of Fowls, ll.599-600: “Thow farst by love as oules don by lyght:/ The day hem blent, ful wel they se by night” (‘you fare with love as owls do with light: the day blinds them, but they see very well by night’).
atprenche: this word appears only in The Owl and the Nightingale (here and again at l.814), and is etymologically obscure. It may be a scribe’s error for atwrenche, ‘pull away from’; the OE runic character wynn was falling out of use in the ME period, and scribes unfamiliar with the letter might easily have read it as p (the scribe of C makes this mistake elsewhere in the poem). However, as the manuscripts agree on this reading and the alternative atwrenche also appears in only one ME text, editors have generally chosen to let atprenche stand; the meaning has to be inferred from context.
galegale: this is a neologism, which repeats the second element of niȝtingale (which derives from OE galan, ‘to sing’) for comic effect. The implication is that the nightingale chatters too much; the word literally means ‘sing-sing’ or ‘squawk-squawk’ (see MED galen (v.) b), but might be loosely translated as ‘chatterbox’ or (as Stanley suggested) with an invented word like ‘gabble-gale’ (Stanley, p.111).
Lat þine tunge habbe spale: the owl will later argue (ll.331-348) that the nightingale’s incessant singing is an example of immoderate behaviour, and makes her music tiresome.
nich ne nai: nich derives from OE ne + ic, literally meaning ‘not I’. For the expression nikken nai, ‘to say no’, ‘to deny’, see MED nikken (v.(1)).
havekes cunne: the owl is boasting about belonging to the family of the hawk and other birds of prey, an argument perhaps implicitly intended as a rejection of the opposition between the falcon and the owl – as types of the noble and the unclean bird – in the nightingale’s fable about the owl’s child and the falcon’s nest (ll.101-126). The fourteenth-century writer John Trevisa comments of the owl, “onliche in fetheris and in bylle sche semaþ lyche to foules of prey, but sche is al vnliche to hem in boldnesse and vertue” (‘only in feathers and in beak does she appear similar to birds of prey; she is completely unlike them in bravery or virtue’. See On the properties of things: John Trevisa’s translation of Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ ‘De proprietatibus rerum’: A Critical Text, ed. M. C. Seymour et al. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975-87), 3 vols, cap. 6, p.614, ll.29-31).
Ne mai me no man þarevore schende: this answers the nightingale’s accusations about the owl’s foul and unpleasant nature; the owl cannot escape the characteristics of her kende, but neither can she be blamed for them. On medieval debates about innate nobility and the opposition between nurture and nature (‘kind’), see David Burnley, Courtliness and Literature in Medieval England (London: Longman, 1998), pp.87-94.
bichermet and bigredeþ: this is another reference to the mobbing of owls, in similar language to that which the nightingale used in ll.64-8. The owl is not denying the nightingale’s accusation that she is hated by other birds, but using it as evidence of her kene nature as a bird of prey.
Me is lof to habbe reste: the owl’s preference for quiet and peace has been interpreted as a suggestion that the owl represents the contemplative religious life; for this argument see G. G. Coulton, ‘The Owl and the Nightingale’, Modern Language Review 17 (1922), 69-71.
Mid fule worde, so herdes doþ, oþer mid schitworde: this phrase may be read either as ‘with foul words, as shepherds do, or with shit-words’, or as ‘with foul words, as shepherds do to each other with shit-words’, depending on how oþer is interpreted.
me ne chide wit þe gidie: for proverbial expressions about not arguing with fools, cf. Proverbs 26.4 and Ecclesiasticus 8.4, and the Proverbs of Alfred, ed. Morris, p.126: ‘ne gabbe þu ne schotte / ne chid þu wiþ none sotte’ (‘do not jabber or shout, nor argue with fools’).
Ne wit þan ofne me ne ȝonie: the point of this line is that no one can gape more widely than an oven and so, like arguing with a fool, it is an exercise in futility. There are parallel expressions in Dutch, Flemish and French; see C. T. Onions, ‘Gaping Against an Oven’, Medium Ævum 9 (1940), 86-7.
an oþer side: this could be interpreted to mean ‘on the other hand’, but as this proverb does not contradict the previous one, the translation ‘on another occasion’ (siþe) seems more appropriate.
þat wit þe fule… cleine: for the proverb, cf. Ecclesiasticus 13.1, and Bartlett Jere Whiting, Proverbs, Sentences and Proverbial Phrases from English Writings Mainly Before 1500 (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), F558.
oþer þinge: this responds to the nightingale’s accusation at ll.220-226.
telst: ME telen, ‘to blame’, ‘to accuse’, is the reading of C, where J has tellen, ‘to tell’. However, telen usually has a direct object, which is lacking in this line (in this case it would be me). Stanley suggests that telst was perhaps accidentally switched at some stage of scribal copying with the verb seist in the previous line (Stanley, p.113).
Mid fulle dreme: this may be an idiom meaning ‘loudly’, ‘with full voice’ (see MED drem (n.(1)) b), but drem can also mean ‘melody’, ‘joyous sound’ (as earlier in the poem, l.21); in this case the meaning of the phrase would be ‘with a very joyous melody’.
Irish prost: the point of this reference is not entirely clear. There are a handful of derogatory remarks about the Irish clergy in ME literature; see for instance Piers Plowman B xx.221 (The Vision of Piers Plowman, ed. A. V. C. Schmidt, 2nd edition (London: Dent, 1995), p.354), but the implication here may only be that an Irish priest speaking Latin or his own language at speed, or with a distinctive accent, sounded like ‘chattering’ to English listeners.
a riȝte time: the owl’s description of the set times at which she sings is another reference to the canonical hours of the monastic day (as in l.26). An eve corresponds to Vespers, bedtime to Compline, a middelniȝte to Nocturns, and daybreak to Lauds. In this context, a riȝte time therefore means ‘at the proper, appointed time’, in contrast to the nightingale, who (according to the owl) sings night and day in an unregulated manner.
warni men to hore note: this phrase could be translated either ‘exhort men to their duties’ or ‘warn men for their benefit’. Either way, the owl and the nightingale are arguing over their usefulness to human society, which, as Cartlidge notes, is a regular feature of medieval debate-poetry between animals or birds (Cartlidge, p.56).
ho: the feminine pronoun ho is used here because mur3þe is grammatically female. Similarly, in ll.346-7 the masculine pronoun he follows the masculine noun song.
harpe… ȝif hit is to long: Cf. Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde, ll.1030-6: “For though the beste harpour upon lyve / Wolde on the beste sowned joly harpe / That evere was, with all his fyngres fyve / Touche ay o stryng, or ay o werbul harpe… It sholde maken every wight to dulle, / To here his glee.” (‘For though the best harper alive were playing on the best-sounding merry harp that ever existed, with his five fingers, if he always only played one string, or always harped on one tune, it would bore everyone to listen to his song’).
ure unwille: the meaning of this phrase is not clear. The manuscripts both read over unwille, ‘despite displeasure’, but this is an awkward phrase and, in any case, the point is not that the music continues despite the listeners’ displeasure but that it continues until it becomes unpleasant. Editors have generally chosen to amend the phrase so that it means ‘to our displeasure’.
Evrich þing… mid overdede: There are many proverbs warning against excess or praising the virtue of moderation, but none have been recorded which are identical with the one quoted by the owl. Cf. similar statements in Ancrene Wisse, “eurich þing me mei… ouerdon; best is euer imete” (‘everything can be done to excess; moderation is always best’, The English Text of the Ancrene Riwle, ed. Mabel Day, E.E.T.S. o.s. 225 (London: Oxford University Press, 1957), p.129), the Lambeth Homilies, “alle oferdone þing deriað and imetness is alre mihta modor” (‘any kind of excess causes harm, and moderation is the mother of all virtues”, in Old English Homilies and Homiletic Treatises, ed. R. Morris, E.E.T.S. o.s. 34 (London: N. Trübner, 1868), p.101), and Piers Plowman B I.35, “Mesure is medicine” (ed. Schmidt, p.15).
Bute one, þat is Godes riche: In these lines, something of a digression from the main argument, the owl is adopting the language and imagery of a homilist. In ll.716-20 the nightingale speaks in a similar way when she defends her singing on the grounds that mankind is born to ascend “to þare blisse of houene riche / Þar euer is song and mur3þe iliche” (‘to the bliss of the kingdom of heaven, where there is always singing and rejoicing’).
on oþer shome: This is in answer to the nightingale’s accusation in ll.217-252.
Þu wenest þat ich ne miȝte iso: miȝte here is in the past tense, rather than the present subjunctive which the context seems to require; the line means ‘you think that I could not see’, rather than the more appropriate ‘you think that I cannot see’. Cartlidge notes that “Like many modern speakers of English, the C-scribe seems to regard ‘might’ in some contexts as a modal auxiliary without any implication of past sense… This is a good example of a usage proscribed by some modern grammarians that nevertheless has a very long history in English” (Cartlidge, p.117).
Þe hare luteþ al dai: The owl’s comparison of herself to a hare is a flattering one: some medieval bestiaries (see for example Bestiary, ed. Barber, p.66-7) view the hare in positive terms because, as an animal known for its timidity, it represents people who virtuously fear God. The hunted hare is also a sympathetic figure in the poem ‘The Mourning of the Hunted Hare’ (‘Bi a forrest as I gane fare’), in which a hare, skulking away from its pursuers, laments the sorrows of its life (R. H. Robbins, Secular Lyrics of the XIVth and XVth Centuries (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955), pp.107-110). St Anselm was supposed to have saved the life of a hare which was being hunted by hounds, taking pity on it because it reminded him of a sinner being hunted by devils (see Eadmer, The Life of St Anselm, ed. R. W. Southern (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), pp.89-90).
The running or crouching hare often appears as a motif in medieval art: for some examples, see G. L. Remnant, A Catalogue of Misericords in Great Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), Plates 25d and 43d, and Lilian Randall, Images in the Margins of Gothic Manuscripts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), plates XIII and XIX.
to himward: this is a common construction in Middle English; -ward could be suffixed to nouns or pronouns to indicate ‘in the direction of (noun/pronoun)’, e.g. to God-ward ‘towards God’, to us-ward ‘towards us’, etc. (see MED –ward (suffix), 2).
hupþ and stard suþe cove: There is an anonymous Middle English poem, roughly contemporary to The Owl and the Nightingale, called ‘On the Names of a Hare’, which describes the characteristics of the hare with a variety of inventive names including louting, ‘skulker’ (cf. luteþ in l.373). This poem agrees with O&N in associating the hare with swift movement, and there are some verbal parallels between the poems, such as between this line and the epithets deu-hoppere ‘hopper in the dew’ and coue-arise ‘one who gets up quickly’. The poem is edited by A. S. C. Ross in Proceedings of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society 3 (1932-5), 347-377; see also the verse translation into Modern English by Seamus Heaney in The Rattle Bag, ed. Seamus Heaney and Ted Hughes (London: Faber, 1982), pp.305-6.
vor boþe his eȝe: there is a double meaning here; the owl is talking about the hare’s eyesight, but for both his eyes is also an idiom meaning ‘for the sake of his eyes’, ‘to save his eyes’; cf. the Modern English expression ‘to save one’s life’.
Ich folȝi þan aȝte manne: In Old English poetry, the three ‘beasts of battle’ who gather at a field of battle to feast on the carrion are the raven, the eagle and the wolf (see Francis P. Magoun, ‘The Theme of the Beasts of Battle in Anglo-Saxon Poetry’, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 56 (1955), 81-90). It has been suggested (by Margaret Ashdown, ‘The Owl and the Nightingale, ll.385, 389-90’, Modern Language Review 18 (1923), 342-3) that the owl may have been part of this group in some version of the tradition, based on the appearance of an owl along with the raven and eagle as beasts of battle in a Danish ballad. However, it seems likely that in O&N the owl is simply trying to justify her habit of flying at night by associating herself with soldiers who travel in darkness.