oft (adverb): often, always
him (pronoun, reflexive, 3rd person, masculine dative singular): he. he, it
anhaga (noun, nominative singular): anhaga, weak masculine. solitary one, recluse
are (noun, genitive singular): ar, strong feminine. honour, prosperity, grace, favour, mercy
gebideð (verb, present 3rd person singular): gebidan, strong class I. wait, experience, endure
Metudes (noun, genitive singular): Metod, masculine proper noun. Creator, God
miltse (noun, genitive singular): milts, strong feminine. compassion, mercy, favour
þeah þe (conjunction): although, though
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
modcearig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): sorrowful at heart, troubled
geond (preposition): through, throughout, over
lagulade (noun, accusative plural): lagulad, strong feminine. sea-path
longe (adverb): lange. long, for a long time
sceolde (verb, past 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
hreran (verb, infinitive, weak class I): move, stir
mid (preposition): with, amongst
hondum (noun, dative plural): hand, feminine u-stem. hand
hrimcealde (adjective, feminine accusative singular) hrimceald. frost-cold
sæ (noun, strong feminine, accusative singular): sea
wadan (verb, infinitive, strong class VI): travel, go
wræclastas (noun, accusative plural): wræclast, strong masculine. path of exile
wyrd (noun, strong feminine, nominative singular): fate, chance, event
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
ful (adverb): fully, completely, very
aræd (adjective, feminine nominative singular): determined, appointed, resolute
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
cwæð (verb, past 3rd person singular): cweðan, strong class V. say, speak, call
eardstapa (noun, nominative singular): eardstapa, weak masculine. land-stepper, wanderer
earfeþa (noun, genitive plural): earfoþe, strong neuter. hardship, trouble
gemyndig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): gemyndig. mindful
wraþra (adjective, genitive plural): wraþ. angry, cruel, fierce
wælsleahta (noun, genitive plural): wælsliht, strong masculine. slaughter, carnage
winemæga (noun, genitive plural): winemæg, weak masculine. beloved kinsman
hryre (noun, genitive plural): hryre, strong masculine. death, fall
oft (adverb): often
ic (personal pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
sceolde (verb, past 1st person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
ana (adjective, weak masculine nominative singular) an. one, a single, alone
uhtna (noun, genitive plural): uhte, weak feminine. dawn
gehwylce (pronoun, indefinite, masculine instrumental singular): gehwelc. each, every
mine (adjective, possessive, feminine accusative singular): min. my, mine
ceare (noun, accusative singular): cearu, strong feminine. care, sorrow
cwiþan (verb, infinitive, class I weak): grieve, lament
nis (verb, negative, 3rd person singular): beon, anomalous verb. be
nu (adverb): now
cwicra (adjective, genitive plural): cwic, alive, quick
nan (pronoun, indefinite, masculine nominative singular): none, no one
þe (relative pronoun): who, which, that or when, where, then
ic (pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
him (pronoun, reflexive, 3rd person, masculine dative singular): he. he, it
modsefan (noun, accusative singular): modsefa, weak masculine. mind, spirit
mine (adjective, possessive, masculine accusative singular): min. my, mine
durre (verb, subjunctive, present 1st person singular): durran. dare
sweotule (adverb): sweotole. clearly, openly
asecgan (verb, infinitive, weak class III): say, tell
ic (pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
to (preposition): to, towards, against, at, as, on, from, for
soþe (noun, dative singular): soþ, strong neuter. truth
wat (verb, present 1st person singular): witan, know, understand
þæt (conjunction): that, because
biþ (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon, anomalous verb. be
in (preposition): in, on, into
eorle (noun, dative singular): eorl, strong masculine. nobleman, warrior, lord
indryhten (adjective, masculine nominative singular): noble, distinguished
þeaw (noun, nominative singular) þeaw, strong masculine. custom, habit
þæt (conjunction): that, because
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
ferðlocan (noun, accusative singular): ferðloca, weak masculine. life-enclosure, breast
fæste (adverb): securely, firmly
binde (verb, present subjunctive singular): bindan, strong class III. bind
healde (verb, present subjunctive singular): healdan, strong class VII. hold, preserve, govern, satisfy
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
hordcofan (noun, accusative singular): hordcofa, weak masculine. treasure-chamber, heart, breast
hycge (verb, present subjunctive singular) hycgan, weak class III. think, consider, endeavour
swa (conjunction): as, so that
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
wille (verb, present subjunctive singular): willan, anomalous verb, wish, desire, intend, will
ne (adverb): not
mæg (verb, present 3rd person singular): magan. may, be able to
werig (adjective, neuter nominative singular): weary
mod (noun, nominative singular): mod, strong neuter. mind, heart, courage, spirit, pride
wyrde (noun, dative singular): wyrd, strong feminine. fate, chance, event
wiðstondan (verb, infinitive, strong class VI): withstand
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
se (demonstrative pronoun, masculine nominative singular): the, that, this, the aforementioned, he
hreo (adjective, weak masculine nominative singular): hreoh. troubled, fierce
hyge (noun, nominative singular): hyge, strong masculine. mind, heart, thought
helpe (noun, accusative singular): help, strong feminine. help
gefremman (verb, infinitive, weak class I): provide, bring about, support
forðon (adverb): for þam. therefore, and so
domgeorne (adjective, masculine nominative plural): domgeorn. eager for glory / justice
dreorigne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): dreorig. sorrowful, cruel, bloody
oft (adverb): often, always
in (preposition): in, on, into
hyra (pronoun, personal, 3rd person genitive plural): hie. they
breostcofan (noun, dative singular): breostcofa, weak masculine. breast-chamber, heart
bindað (verb, plural): bindan, strong class III. bind
fæste (adverb): securely, firmly
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
ic (pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
modsefan (noun, accusative singular): modsefa, weak masculine. mind, spirit
mine (adjective, possessive, masculine accusative singular): min. my, mine
sceolde (verb, past 1st person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
oft (adverb): often, always
earmcearig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): sorrowful, miserable
eðle (noun, dative singular): eðel, strong masculine. native land, homeland
bidæled (verb, past participle): bedælan, weak class I. separate, deprive
freomægum (noun, dative plural): freomæg, strong masculine. free kinsmen, noble kinsmen
feor (adjective, masculine nominative singular): far
feterum (noun, dative plural) fetor, strong feminine. fetter
sælan (verb, infinitive) sælan, weak class I. bind, fasten
siþþan (conjunction): after, since
geara (adverb): formerly
iu (adverb): long ago
goldwine (noun, accusative singular): goldwin, strong masculine. gold-friend, lord
mine (adjective, possessive, masculine accusative singular): min. my, mine
hrusan (noun, genitive singular): hruse, weak feminine. earth
heolstre (noun, dative singular): heolstor, strong masculine. darkness
biwrah (verb, past 1st person singular): bewreon, strong class I. cover, conceal
ond (conjunction): and
ic (pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
hean (adjective, masculine nominative singular): dejected, poor
þonan (adverb): þenan. hence
wod (verb, past 1st person singular): wadan, strong class VI. go, travel
wintercearig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): winter-sorrowful
ofer (preposition): over, beyond, above, upon, against
waþema (noun, genitive plural): waþum, strong masculine. wave
gebind (verb, plural): bindan, strong class III. bind
sohte (verb, past first person singular): secan, weak class I. seek
seledreorig (noun, masculine nominative singular): sad at the loss of a hall
sinces (noun, genitive singular): sinc, strong neuter. treasure
bryttan (noun, accusative singular): brytta, weak masculine. giver, dispenser
hwær (conjunction): where
ic (pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
feor (adverb): far
oþþe (conjunction): or
neah (adverb): near
findan (verb, infinitive): findan, strong class III. find
meahte (verb, past 1st person singular): magan. may, be able to
þone þe (relative pronoun, masculine accusative singular): se ðe. that which, he who, who, whoever
in (preposition): in, on, into
meoduhealle (noun, dative singular): meduheall, strong feminine. mead-hall
min (pronoun, possessive, 1st person genitive singular): my, mine
mine (noun, masculine accusative singular): myne. mind, desire, affection
wisse (verb, past 3rd person singular) (ge)witan. know, understand
oþþe (conjunction): or
mec (personal pronoun, 1st person accusative singular): me
freondleasne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): freondleas. friendless
frefran (verb, infinitive): frefran, weak class I. comfort, console
wolde (verb, past 3rd person singular): willan. wish, desire, intend, will
wenian (verb, infinitive): wenian, weak class II. entertain
mid (preposition): with, amongst
wynnum (noun, dative plural): wynn, strong feminine. joy, pleasure
wat (verb, present 3rd person singular): witan, know, understand
se þe (relative pronoun, masculine nominative singular): that which, he who, who, whoever
cunnað (verb, 3rd person singular): (ge)cunnian, weak class II. find out, text, experience
hu (conjunction): how
sliþen (adjective, feminine nominative singular): cruel
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
sorg (noun, nominative singular): sorg, strong feminine. sorrow, pain
to (preposition): to, towards, against, at, as, on, from, for
geferan (noun, dative singular): gefara, weak masculine. companion
þam þe (relative pronoun, masculine dative singular): se ðe. that which, he who, who, whoever
him (pronoun, reflexive, 3rd person, masculine dative singular): he. he, it
lyt (adjective, indeclinable): little, few
hafað (verb, 3rd person singular): habban, strong class III. have, possess
leofra (adjective, masculine genitive plural): leof. dear, beloved
geholena (noun, genitive plural): geholena, weak masculine. confidant
warað (verb, 3rd person singular): warian, weak class II. occupy, defend, hold
hine (personal pronoun, 3rd person masculine accusative singular): he, it
wræclast (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. path of exile
nales (adverb): not at all
wunden (adjective, masculine nominative singular): wound, twisted
gold (noun, nominative singular): strong neuter. gold
ferðloca (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. life-enclosure
freorig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): frozen
nalæs (adverb): nales. not at all
foldan (noun, genitive singular): folde, weak feminine. earth
blæd (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. glory, prosperity, animation
gemon (verb, present 3rd person singular): gemunan. remember, bring to mind
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
selesecgas (noun, accusative plural): selesecg, strong masculine. man of the hall, retainer
ond (conjunction): and
sincþege (noun, accusative singular): sincþegu, strong feminine. receiving of treasure
hu (conjunction): how
hine (personal pronoun, 3rd person masculine accusative singular): he, it
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
geoguðe (noun, dative singular): geoguð, strong feminine. youth
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
goldwine (noun, accusative singular): goldwin, strong masculine. gold-friend, lord
wenede (verb, past 3rd person singular): wenian, weak class II. entertain
to (preposition): to, towards, against, at, as, on, from, for
wiste (dative singular): wist, strong feminine. plenty, feast
wyn (noun, nominative singular): wynn, strong feminine. joy, pleasure
eal (adverb): all, entirely
gedreas (verb, past 3rd person singular): (ge)dreosan, strong class II. fall, perish
for þon (adverb): for þam. therefore
wat (verb, present 3rd person singular): witan, know, understand
se þe (relative pronoun, masculine nominative singular): that which, he who, who, whoever
sceal (verb, present 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
winedryhtnes (noun, genitive singular): winedryhten, strong masculine. friend and lord
leofes (adjective, masculine genitive singular): leof. dear, beloved
larcwidum (noun, dative plural): larcwide, strong masculine. law-speech, teaching
longe (adverb): long
forþolian (verb, infinitive): weak class II. do without
ðonne (conjunction): when, whenever, than
sorg (noun, nominative singular): strong feminine. sorrow, trouble
ond (conjunction): and
slæp (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. sleep
somod (adverb): together, at the same time
ætgædre (adverb): together
earmne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): earm. wretched, sorrowful
anhogan (noun, accusative singular): anhoga,weak masculine. one who contemplates alone, solitary thinker
oft (adverb): often, always
gebindað (verb, plural): (ge)bindan, strong class III. bind
þinceð (verb, 3rd person singular): þyncan, weak class I. seem
him (pronoun, reflexive, 3rd person, masculine dative singular): he. he, it
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
mode (noun, dative singular): mod, strong neuter. mind, heart, courage, spirit, pride
þæt (conjunction): that, so that, in order that
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
mondryhten (noun, accusative singular): mondryhten, strong masculine. leige lord, lord of men
clyppe (verb, present subjunctive singular): clyppan, weak class I. embrace, clasp, cherish
ond (conjunction): and
cysse (verb, present subjunctive singular): (ge)cyssan, weak class I. kiss
ond (conjunction): and
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
cneo (noun, dative singular): cneow, strong masculine. knee
lecge (verb, present subjunctive singular): (ge)lecgan, weak class I. lay, place
honda (noun, dative plural): hond, feminine u-stem. hand
ond (conjunction): and
heafod (noun, accusative singular): heofod, strong neuter. head
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
hwilum (adverb): sometimes, for a time, at times
ær (adverb): before, formerly, earlier
in (preposition): in, on, into
geardagum (noun, dative plural): geardæg, strong masculine. former days
giefstolas (noun, genitive singular): giefstol, strong masculine. throne, gift-seat
breac (verb, past 3rd person singular): brucan, strong class II. use, benefit from, enjoy
ðonne (adverb): then
onwæcneð (verb, present 3rd person singular): onwæcnan, weak class I. wake, awaken
eft (adverb): afterwards, again, thereafter
wineleas (adjective, masculine nominative singular): weak masculine. friendless
guma (noun, nominative singular): man
gesihð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)seon, strong class V. see, look
him (pronoun, reflexive, 3rd person, masculine dative singular): he. he, it
biforan (preposition): before, in front of
fealwe (adjective, masculine accusative plural): fealu. dark, tawny
wegas (noun, accusative plural): weg, strong masculine. wave
baþian (verb, infinitive): weak class II. wash, bathe
brimfuglas (noun, accusative plural): brimfugol, strong masculine. sea-bird
brædan (verb, infinitive): weak class I. spread, extend
feþra (noun, accusative plural): feþer, strong feminine. feather, wing
hreosan (verb, infinitive): strong class II. fall
hrim (noun, accusative singular): hrim, strong masculine. frost, hoar-frost
ond (conjunction): and
snaw (noun, accusative singular): snaw, strong masculine. snow
hagle (noun, dative singular): hagol, strong masculine. hail
gemenged (verb, past participle): (ge)mengan, weak class I. mingle, mix
þonne (adverb): then
beoð (verb, present plural): beon: anomalous verb. be
þy (demonstrative pronoun, neuter instrumental singular): se. the, that, this, the aforementioned, he
hefigran (adjective, comparative, feminine nominative plural): hefig. heavy, oppressive
heortan (noun, genitive singular): heorte, weak feminine. heart
benne (noun, nominative plural): benn, strong feminine. wound
sare (adjective, feminine nominative plural): sar. sore, painful, grievous
æfter (preposition): after, by means of, on account of, through
swæsne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): swæs. dear, beloved
sorg (noun, nominative singular): strong feminine. sorrow, trouble
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon, anomalous verb. be
geniwad (verb, past participle): geniwan, weak class II. renew, restore
þonne (conjunction): when, than
maga (noun, genitive plural): mæg, strong masculine. kinsman
gemynd (noun, accusative singular): gemynd, strong feminine. remembrance, memory, thought
mod (noun, nominative singular): mod, strong neuter. mind, heart, courage, spirit, pride
geondhweorfeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): geondhweorfan, strong class III. pass through
greteð (verb, present 3rd person singular): gegretan, weak class I. greet
gliwstafum (noun, dative plural): gliwstæf, strong masculine. joy, pleasure-stave, melody
georne (adverb): earnestly, eagerly, carefully
geondsceawað (verb, present 3rd person singular): geondsceawian, weak class II. survey, examine
secga (noun, genitive plural): secg, strong masculine. man
geseldan (noun, accusative plural): geselda, weak masculine. companion, person who shares the hall
swimmað (verb, plural): (ge)swimman, strong class III. swim
eft (adverb): afterwards, again, thereafter
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
weg (noun, accusative singular): weg, strong masculine. way, road, path
fleotendra (verb, present participle): fleotan, strong class II. float
ferð (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. life, spirit, mind
no (adverb): no, never, not at all
þær (adverb): there
fela (adjective, indeclinable): many
bringeð (verb, 3rd person singular): (ge)bringan, strong class III. bring, bear, offer
cuðra (adjective, genitive plural): cuð. known
cwidegiedda (noun, genitive plural): cuidegiedd, strong masculine. utterances, speech, song
cearo (noun, nominative singular): cearu, strong feminine. care, sorrow
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
geniwad (verb, past participle): geniwian, weak class II. renew, restore
þam þe (relative pronoun, masculine dative singular): se ðe. that which, he who, who, whoever
sendan (verb, infinitive): (ge)sendan, weak class I. send
sceal (verb, present 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
swiþe (adverb): very, greatly
geneahhe (adverb): frequently, often, sufficiently
ofer (preposition): over, beyond, above, upon, against
waþema (noun, genitive plural): waþum, strong masculine. wave
gebind (noun, accusative singular): gebind, strong neuter. Binding, fastening
werigne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): werig. weary, exhausted
sefan (noun, accusative singular): sefa, weak masculine. mind, spirit
forþon (adverb): therefore, and so
ic (pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
geþencan (verb, infinitive): weak class I. think, think to, imagine
ne (adverb): not
mæg (verb, present 1st person singular): magan. may, be able to
geond (preposition): through, throughout, over
þas (demonstrative pronoun, feminine accusative singular): þeos. this
woruld (noun, accusative singular): woruld, strong feminine. world
for (preposition): for, because of, on account of, before, in place of, in sight of
hwan (pronoun, interrogative, neuter instrumental singular): hwa, what, who
modsefa (noun, nominative singular): modsefa, weak masculine. mind, spirit
min (adjective, possessive, masculine nominative singular): my, mine
ne (adverb): not
gesweorce (verb, present subjunctive singular): (ge)sweorcan. grow dark
þonne (conjunction): when, than
ic (pronoun, 1st person nominative singular): I
eorla (noun, genitive plural): eorl, strong masculine. nobleman, warrior, lord
lif (noun, accusative plural): lif. strong neuter. life
eal (adverb): all, entirely
geondþence (verb, 1st person singular): geondþencan, weak class I. think over, consider, meditate
hu (conjunction): how
hi (personal pronoun, 3rd person nominative plural): hie. they
færlice (adverb): suddenly
flet (noun, accusative singular): flet, strong neuter. hall, floor
ofgeafon (verb, past plural): ofgifan, strong class V. give up, abandon
modge (adjective, masculine nominative plural): brave, proud
maguþegnas (noun, nominative plural): maguþegn, strong masculine. young retainer, warrior
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
þes (demonstrative pronoun, masculine nominative singular): this
middangeard (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. world, earth
ealra (adjective, genitive plural): eall. all, each
dogra (noun, genitive plural): dogor, strong masculine. day
gehwam (pronoun, indefinite, masculine dative singular): gehwa. each, each one, every, everyone
dreoseð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)dreosan, strong class II. decline, collapse, fall
ond (conjunction): and
fealleþ (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)feallan, fall
forþon (adverb): therefore, and so
ne (adverb): not
mæg (verb, present 3rd person singular): magan. may, be able to
weorþan (verb, infinitive): (ge)weorþan, strong class III. become, happen, change, be
wis (adjective, masculine nominative singular): wise
wer (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. man
ær (adverb): before, earlier
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
age (verb, present subjunctive 3rd person singular): agan, anomalous. possess, own, have
wintra (noun, genitive plural): winter, masculine u-stem. winter, year
dæl (noun, accusative singular): dæl, strong masculine. part, portion
in (preposition): in, on, into
woruldrice (noun, dative singular): woruldrice, strong neuter. kingdom of the world
wita (noun, nominative singular): wita, weak masculine. wise one, councelor, advisor
sceal (verb, present 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
geþyldig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): patient
ne (adverb): not
sceal (verb, present 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
no (adverb): no, never, not at all
to (adverb): to, too
hatheort (adjective, masculine nominative singular): hot of heart, impulsive, angry
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
to (adverb): to, too
hrædwyrde (adjective, maculine nominative singular): hasty of speech
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
to (adverb): to, too
wac (adjective, masculine nominative singular): weak, feeble
wiga (noun, nominative singular): weak masculine. man
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
to (adverb): to, too
wanhydig (adjective, masculine nominative singular): reckless, rash
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
to (adverb): to, too
forht (adjective, masculine nominative singular): frightened, fearful
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
to (adverb): to, too
fægen (adjective, masculine nominative singular): joyful, glad
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
to (adverb): to, too
feohgifre (adjective, masculine nominative singular): greedy for riches
ne (conjunction): neither, nor
næfre (adverb): never
gielpes (noun, genitive singular): gielp, strong masculine. boast
to (adverb): to, too
georn (adjective, masculine nominative singular): eager, desirous
ær (adverb): before, earlier
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
geare (adverb): well, readily, entirely
cunne (verb, present subjunctive singular): cunnan. know
beorn (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. man, warrior
sceal (verb, present 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
gebidan (infinitive): (ge)bidan, strong class I. wait, experience, endure
þonne (conjunction): when, than
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
beot (noun, accusative singular): beot, strong neuter. boast
spriceð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)sprecan, strong class V. speak
oþþæt (conjunction): until
collenferð (adjective, masculine nominative singular): stout-hearted, courageous, proud
cunne (verb, present subjunctive singular): cunnan. know
gearwe (adverb): well, readily, entirely
hwider (conjunction): to where
hreþra (noun, genitive plural): hreþer, strong masculine. heart, breast
gehygd (noun, nominative singular): strong feminine. thought, mind, cognition
hweorfan (verb, infinitive): (ge)hweorfan, strong class III. change, turn
wille (verb, present subjunctive singular): willan, anomalous verb. wish, desire, intend, will
ongietan (verb, infinitive): strong class V. perceive, understand
sceal (verb, present 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
gleaw (adjective, masculine nominative singular): wise
hæle (noun, nominative singular): masculine dental-stem. man, warrior
hu (conjunction): how
gæstlic (adjective, neuter nominative singular): spiritual, spectral
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
þonne (conjunction): when, than
ealre (adjective, genitive plural): eall. all, each
þisse (personal pronoun, feminine genitive singular): þeos. this
worulde (noun, genitive singular): woruld, strong feminine. world
wela (noun, nominative singular): weak masculine. wealth, prosperity
weste (adjective, masculine nominative singular): waste, ruined, deserted
stondeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)standan, strong class VI. stand, remain
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
nu (adverb): now
missenlice (adverb): variously, in various places
geond (preposition): through, throughout, over
þisne (pronoun, demonstrative, masculine accusative singular): þes. this
middangeard (noun, accusative singular): middangeard, strong masculine. world, earth
winde (noun, dative singular): wind, strong masculine. wind
biwaune (verb, past participle): bewawan, strong class VII. blow upon
weallas (noun, nominative plural): weall, strong masculine. wall
stondaþ (verb, present 3rd person plural): (ge)standan, strong class VI. stand, remain
hrime (noun, dative singular): hrim, strong masculine. frost, hoar-frost
bihrorene (verb, past participle): behreosan, strong class II. fall, cover, shelter
hryðge (adjective, masculine nominative plural): snow-swept, storm-lashed
þa (demonstrative pronoun, nominative plural): se. the, that, this, the aforementioned, he
ederas (noun, nominative plural): eodor, strong masculine. enclosure, dwelling
woriað (verb, present plural): worian, weak class II. wander, decay
þa (demonstrative pronoun, nominative plural): se. the, that, this, the aforementioned, he
winsalo (noun, nominative plural): winsæl, strong neuter. wine-hall, hall
waldend (noun, nominative plural): wealdend, masculine nd-stem. ruler, lord, God
licgað (verb, present plural): licgan, strong class V. lie, run
dreame (noun, dative singular): dream, strong masculine. joy, pleasure, music
bidrorene (verb, past participle): bedreosan, strong class II. deprive
duguþ (noun, nominative singular): strong feminine. experienced troop, band of retainers, majesty, virtue
eal (adjective, feminine nominative singular): each, all
gecrong (verb, past 3rd person singular): (ge)cringan, strong class III. fall, perish
wlonc (adjective, feminine nominative singular): magnificent, proud
bi (preposition): by, near, about, concerning, with
wealle (noun, dative singular): weall, strong masculine. wall
sume (pronoun, indefinite, masculine accusative plural): sum. some, one, a certain one
wig (noun, nominative singular): strong neuter. war
fornom (verb, past 3rd person plural): forniman, strong class IV. destroy, take away
ferede (verb, past 3rd person singular): (ge)ferian, weak class I. carry
in (preposition): in, on, into
forðwege (noun, dative singular): forðweg, strong masculine. the way forth, death
sumne (pronoun, indefinite, masculine accusative singular): sum. some, one, a certain one
fugel (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. bird
oþbær (verb, past 3rd person singular): oþberan, strong class IV. bear away, carry off
ofer (preposition): over, beyond, above, upon, against
heanne (adjective, masculine accusative singular): high, deep
holm (noun, accusative singular): holm, strong masculine. sea, ocean
sumne (pronoun, indefinite, masculine accusative singular): sum. some, one, a certain one
se (demonstrative pronoun, masculine nominative singular): the, that, this, the aforementioned, he
hara (adjective, masculine nominative singular): grey-haired, hoary, old
wulf (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. wolf
deaðe (noun, dative singular): deað, strong masculine. death
gedælde (verb, past 3rd person singular): (ge)dælan, weak class I. divide, separate, distribute
sumne (pronoun, indefinite, masculine accusative singular): sum. some, one, a certain one
dreorighleor (adjective, masculine nominative singular): sad-faced
in (preposition): in, on, into
eorðscræfe (noun, dative singular): eorðscræf, strong neuter. earthen-cave, grave
eorl (noun, nominative singular): eorl, strong masculine. nobleman, warrior, lord
gehydde (verb, past 3rd person singular): gehydan, weak class I. hide
yþde (verb, past 3rd person singular): yðan, weak class I. destroy, lay waste
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
þisne (demonstrative pronoun, masculine accusative singular): þes. this
eardgeard (noun, accusative singular): eardgeard, strong masculine. dwelling place, world
ælda (noun, genitive plural): ylde, strong masculine. men
Scyppend (noun, nominative singular): masculine nd-stem. Creator
oþþæt (conjunction): until
burgwara (noun, genitive plural): burgwaru, strong feminine. town-inhabitants, population
breahtma (noun, genitive plural): breahtm, strong masculine. revelry, tumult, noise
lease (adjective, neuter nominative plural): lacking, without
eald (adjective, neuter nominative plural): eald. old
enta (noun, genitive plural): ent, strong masculine. giant
geweorc (noun, nominative plural): geweorc, strong neuter. work, fortification
idlu (adjective, neuter nominative plural): idel. idle, empty
stodon (verb, past plural): (ge)standan, strong class VI. stand, remain
se (demonstrative pronoun, masculine nominative singular): the, that, this, the aforementioned, he
þonne (adverb): then
þisne (demonstrative pronoun, masculine accusative singular): þes. this
wealsteal (noun, accusative singular): wealsteal, strong masculine. wall-place, foundation
wise (adjective, masculine instrumental singular): wise
geþohte (noun, instrumental singular): strong masculine, thought
ond (conjunction): and
þis (demonstrative pronoun, neuter accusative singular): þes. this
deorce (adjective, neuter accusative singular): dark
lif (noun, accusative singular): lif. strong neuter. life
deope (adverb): deep
geondþenceð (verb, 3rd person singular): geondþencan, weak class I. think over, consider, meditate
frod (adjective, masculine nominative singular): old, wise
in (preposition): in, on, into
ferðe (noun, dative singular): ferhð, strong masculine. spirit, mind, intellect, life
feor (adverb): far, long ago
oft (adverb): often, always
gemon (verb, present 3rd person singular): gemunan. remember, bring to mind
wælsleahta (noun, genitive plural): wælsliht, strong masculine. slaughter, carnage
worn (noun, accusative singular): worn, strong masculine. great many, multitude
ond (conjunction): and
þas (demonstrative pronoun, accusative plural): þes. this
word (noun, accusative plural): word, strong neuter. word
acwið (verb, present 3rd person singular): acweðan, strong class V. say
hwær (adverb): where
cwom (verb, past 3rd person singular): cuman, strong class IV. come
mearg (noun, nominative singular): mearh, strong masculine. horse
hwær (adverb): where
cwom (verb, past 3rd person singular): cuman, strong class IV. come
mago (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. young man, kinsman, warrior
hwær (adverb): where
cwom (verb, past 3rd person singular): cuman, strong class IV. come
maþþumgyfa (noun, nominative singular): weak masculine. treasure-giver, lord
hwær (adverb): where
cwom (verb, past 3rd person singular): cuman, strong class IV. come
symbla (noun, genitive plural): symbel, strong neuter. feast
gesetu (noun, nominative plural): geset, strong neuter. seat, residence
hwær (adverb): where
sindon (verb, plural): beon, anomalous verb. be
seledreamas (noun, nominative plural): seledream, strong masculine. rejoicing in the hall, hall-joy
eala (interjection): oh!, alas!
beorht (adjective, feminine nominative singular): bright
bune (noun, nominative singular): weak feminine. cup
eala (interjection): oh!, alas!
byrnwiga (noun, nominative singular): weak masculine. mailed warrior
eala (interjection): oh!, alas!
þeodnes (noun, genitive singular): þeoden, strong masculine. ruler, prince, king
þrym (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. might, majesty, troop
hu (conjunction): how
seo (demonstrative pronoun, feminine nominative singular): the, that, this, the aforementioned, she
þrag (noun, nominative singular): strong feminine. time, occasion, period
gewat (verb, past 3rd person singular): gewitan, strong class I. depart
genap (verb, past 3rd person singular): (ge)nipan, strong class I. grow dark
under (preposition): under
nihthelm (noun, accusative singular): nihthelm, strong masculine. helm of night, cover of night
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
heo (personal pronoun, 3rd person feminine nominative singular): she, it
no (adverb): no, never, not at all
wære (verb, past subjunctive singular): beon, anomalous verb. be
stondeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)standan, strong class VI. stand, remain
nu (adverb): now
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
laste (noun, dative singular): last, strong masculine. track, trail
leofre (adjective, feminine genitive singular): leof. beloved, dear
duguþ (noun, genitive singular): strong feminine. experienced troop, band of retainers, majesty, virtue
weal (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. wall
wundrum (adverb): astonishingly, wonderously
heah (adjective, masculine nominative singular): high, deep
wyrmlicum (noun, dative plural): wyrmlic, strong neuter. serpent-like, serpentine
fah (adjective, masculine nominative singular): decorated, adorned, stained
eorlas (noun, accusative plural): eorl, strong masculine. nobleman, warrior, lord
fornoman (verb, past plural): forniman, strong class IV. destroy, take away
asca (noun, genitive plural): æsc, strong masculine. ash, spear
þryþe (noun, nominative plural): strong feminine. strength, force, troop
wæpen (noun, nominative plural): strong neuter. weapon
wælgifru (adjective, neuter nominative plural): wælgifre. greedy for slaughter
wyrd (noun, strong feminine, nominative singular): fate, chance, event
seo (demonstrative pronoun, feminine nominative singular): the, that, this, the aforementioned, she
mære (adjective, feminine nominative singular): great, renowned, notorious
ond (conjunction): and
þas (demonstrative pronoun, feminine accusative singular): þeos. this
stanhleoþu (noun, accusative plural): stanhliþ, strong neuter. stony slope, stony wall, cliff
stormas (noun, nominative plural): storm, strong masculine. storm
cnyssað (verb, present plural): cnyssan, weak class I. dash against, strike, trouble
hrið (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. snow-storm
hreosende (verb, present participle): hreosan, strong class II. fall
hrusan (noun, genitive singular) hruse, weak feminine. earth
bindeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)bindan, strong class III. bind
wintres (noun, genitive singular): winter, masculine u-stem. winter, year
woma (noun, nominative singular): weak masculine. noise, howling, terror
þonne (adverb): then
won (adjective, masculine nominative singular): dark, dark one
cymeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): cuman, strong class IV. come
nipeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)nipan, strong class I. darken, grow dark
nihtscua (noun, nominative singular): weak masculine. shadow of night
norþan (adverb): from the north
onsendeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): onsendan, weak class I. send, dispatch
hreo (adjective, feminine accusative singular): hreoh. troubled, fierce
hæglfare (noun, accusative singular): hægelfaru, strong feminine. hailstorm
hæleþum (noun, dative plural): hæle, masculine dental stem. man, warrior, hero
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
andan (noun, accusative singular): anda, weak masculine. anger, malice
eall (adjective, neuter nominative singular): all, each
is (verb, 3rd person singular): beon, anomalous verb. be
earfoðlic (adjective, neuter nominative singular): difficult, fraught with hardships
eorþan (noun, genitive singular): eorðe, weak feminine. earth
rice (noun, nominative singular): strong neuter. kingdom, rule
onwendeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): onwendan, weak class I. change, turn
wyrda (noun, genitive plural): strong feminine. fate, chance, event
gesceaft (noun, nominative singular): strong feminine. creation, decree, destiny
weoruld (noun, accusative singular): woruld, strong feminine. world
under (preposition): under
heofonum (noun, dative plural): heofon, strong masculine. heaven
her (adverb): here
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
feoh (noun, nominative singular): strong neuter. wealth, riches
læne (adjective, neuter nominative singular): loaned, transitory
her (adverb): here
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
freond (noun, nominative singular): masculine nd-stem. friend
læne (adjective, neuter nominative singular): loaned, transitory
her (adverb): here
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
mon (noun, nominative singular): masculine athematic. man, person
læne (adjective, neuter nominative singular): loaned, transitory
her (adverb): here
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
mæg (noun, nominative singular): mæg, strong masculine. kinsman
læne (adjective, neuter nominative singular): loaned, transitory
eal (adjective, neuter nominative singular): all, each
þis (demonstrative pronoun, neuter nominative singular): this
eorþan (noun, genitive singular): eorðe, weak feminine. earth
gesteal (noun, nominative singular): strong neuter. foundation
idel (adjective, neuter nominative singular): idle, empty
weorþeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)weorðan, strong class III. become, happen, change, be
swa (adverb): so, in such a way, thus, as
cwæð (verb, past 3rd person singular): cweðan, strong class V. say, speak, call
snottor (adjective, masculine nominative singular): wise
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
mode (noun, dative singular): mod, strong neuter. mind, heart, courage, spirit, pride
gesæt (verb, past 3rd person singular): (ge)sittan, strong class V. sit
him (pronoun, reflexive, 3rd person, masculine dative singular): he. he, it
sundor (adverb): apart
æt (prepostition): at, from, near, before
rune (noun, dative singular): run, strong feminine. counsel, secret, rune
til (adjective, masculine nominative singular): good
biþ (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon, anomalous verb. be
se þe (relative pronoun, masculine nominative singular): that which, he who, who, whoever
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
treowe (noun, accusative singular): treow, strong feminine. truth, faith, loyalty, pledge
gehealdeþ (verb, present 3rd person singular): healdan, strong class VII. hold, preserve, govern, satisfy
ne (adverb): not
sceal (verb, present 3rd person singular): sculan. be obliged, must, have to, ought to, shall, should
næfre (adverb): never
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
torn (noun, accusative singular): torn, strong neuter. resentment, anger, grief
to (preposition): to, towards, against, at, as, on, from, for
rycene (adverb): quickly, hastily
beorn (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. man, warrior
of (preposition): of, from
his (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine genitive singular): he. he, it
breostum (noun, dative plural): breost, strong neuter. breast
acyþan (verb, infinitive): weak class I. reveal
nemþe (conjunction): unless
he (pronoun, personal, 3rd person masculine nominative singular): he, it
ær (adverb): before, earlier
þa (demonstrative pronoun, nominative plural): se. the, that, this, the aforementioned, he
bote (noun, accusative singular): bot, strong feminine. help, cure, correction
cunne (verb, present subjunctive singular): cunnan. know
eorl (noun, nominative singular): strong masculine. nobleman, warrior, lord
mid (preposition): with, amongst
elne (noun, dative singular): ellen, strong neuter. courage, zeal
gefremman (verb, infinitive): weak class I. provide, bring about, support
wel (adverb): well, rightly, fully
bið (verb, present 3rd person singular): beon: anomalous verb. be
þam þe (relative pronoun, masculine dative singular): se ðe. that which, he who, who, whoever
him (pronoun, reflexive, 3rd person, masculine dative singular): he. he, it
are (noun, accusative singular): ar, strong feminine. mercy, honour, prosperity
seceð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)secan, weak class I. seek
frofre (noun, accusative singular): frofor, strong feminine. comfort, consolation, help
to (preposition): to, towards, against, at, as, on, from, for
fæder (noun, dative singular): fæder, masculine r-stem. father, God
on (preposition): on, upon, in, to, at, against
heofonum (noun, dative plural): heofon, strong masculine. heaven
þær (conjunction): where
us (personal pronoun, 1st person dative plural): us
eal (adjective): all, each
seo (demonstrative pronoun, feminine nominative singular): the, that, this, the aforementioned, she
fæstnung (noun, nominative singular): strong feminine. permanence, security, stability
stondeð (verb, present 3rd person singular): (ge)standan, strong class VI. stand, remain
feor oþþe neah –far or near
to soþe – as a truth, truly
hycge swa he wille – think as he will,whatever he may think
flet ofgeafon – departed the hall,died
gielpes to georn – too eager to boast
se – he who
hwær cwom – where has gone, what has become of
on læste – in the track of, in the footsteps of
eorþan rice – earthly kingdom
wyrda gesceaft – set course of events
Oft him anhaga – The Old English word oft usually means ‘often’, but in poetry it can also mean ‘always’. The Wanderer’s sorrows may dominate his every waking moment. Both anhaga and anhoga (40) may have the weakened sense ‘one who is alone’. There may be the Christian implication ‘hermit’ – the Lambeth Psalter glosses passer solitarius as spearwa anhoga. Etymologically, anhaga is probably derived from hogian, ‘to think’ and anhoga from *hecgan, ‘to enclose’.
Gebideð – ‘gebideð’ can mean either ‘await’ or ‘experience’, which suggests two possible interpretations: 1) the solitary man always experiences mercy; or 2) the solitary man always awaits mercy. The former seems to allow for a looser interpretation, whereas the latter (accepted by Muir for example) enforces early on a Christian didactic approach, i.e. this is what will happen.
The Exeter anthology of Old English poetry: an edition of Exeter Dean and Chapter MS 3501, 2nd edn, ed. by Bernard J. Muir (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000), p. 503.
hreran mid hondum – This phrase probably refers to the solitary man rowing or steering a boat under his own hand, rather than the literal sense of stirring the water with his hands.
hrimceald – Hapax legomenon. This adjective is not found elsewhere in the OE corpus. The word hrim also occurs at line 48, and survives as ME ‘rime’, in the particular sense of a frost or ice covering forming in freezing fog. The OE term is related to ON hrím, and the compound hrímkaldr occurs three times in Old Norse poetry. The term also seems to be closely linked to the giants in Scandinavian mythology: hrímþursar, or ‘frost–giants’, are a particular class of supernatural being.
Swa cwæð –
Swa cwæð is a phrase not found elsewhere in OE verse. This might indicate either that the
eardstapa spoke the lines that preceded, or the lines that follow. Speeches in OE verse are more commonly introduced by
N. maðelode or
N. word gecwæð (cf. line 91,
ond þas word acwið).
Gerald Richman, ‘Speaker and Speech Boundaries in The Wanderer’, Journal of English and Germanic Philology 81.4 (1982), pp. 469-479.
Wyrd bið ful aræd – Mitchell and Robinson’s translation (‘fate is wholly inexorable!’) has been criticised, for example by Griffith;
wyrd is etymologically related to
weorðan ‘become’ and it literally means ‘what comes to pass’. The use of the adjective
aræd, the past participle of the verb
arædan, often meaning ‘to appoint, determine’, might suggest that
wyrd is ‘set’, as in the modern idiom, ‘set in one’s ways’. Timmer translates ‘man’s lot is fully determined!’
Bruce Mitchell and Fred C. Robinson, A Guide to Old English, 8th edn (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012)
Mark S. Griffith, “Does ‘Wyrd Bið Ful Aræd’ Mean ‘Fate Is Wholly Inexorable’?’ Studies in English Language and Literature: "Doubt Wisely" ed. M. J. Toswell and E. M. Tyler (Routledge: London, 1996), pp. 133-56.
> B. J. Timmer, ‘The Elegaic Mood in Old English Poetry’ English Studies 24 (1942), pp. 33-44.
winemæga hryre – A much–discussed crux. Mitchell and Robinson take
hryre as genitive plural, parallel to
earfeða and
wraðra wælsleahta, with a weakened final vowel (
–a is expected). This solution is dismissed by Dunning and Bliss because a plural is unidiomatic in OE, Kershaw’s suggestion that
hryre is a causal dative might be preferable: ‘mindful of the fierce battles accompanying the deaths of his kinsmen’. However, as Mitchell argues elsewhere, this interpretation is weakened by
gemyndig also governing two phrases in the genitive case. Muir gives a fair summary of other suggestions, p. 505.
T.E. Dunning and A. J. Bliss, The Wanderer (London: Methuen, 1969), pp. 23–24.
N. Kershaw, Anglo-Saxon and Norse Poems (Cambridge: CUP, 1922)
Bruce Mitchell, ‘Some Syntactical Problems in The Wanderer’, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 69 (1968), pp. 172-198.
ferðlocan fæste binde – A sentiment appropriate to both heroic and Christian culture: see especially Homiletic Fregment II (3-4): heald hordlocan, hyge fæste bind mid modsefan (‘hold secret your thoughts, bind fast your thinking within your mind’).
healde his hordcofan – The scribe wrote healdne his hordcofan: Healdne is most likely to be accusative singular of the adjective heald, meaning ‘sloping, inclined or bent’. Although the word order is unusual, healdne his hordcofan would parallel ferðlocan: ‘that he binds tight his breast and the inclinations of his mind.’
domgeorne – For what are they eager? Dom literally means ‘judgement’, but it is unclear who is the judge: God? His peers? Beowulf is famously described as lofgeornost, ‘most eager for glory’ (3182). It is sometimes unclear whether these epithets indicate praiseworthy qualities.
dreorigne – It is unlikely that dreorigne is the object of bindað since an adjective used as a substantive in OE usually denotes a person defined by the revelevant quality. The object might be understood as hyge (16) (though this is nominative) or modsefan (19).
breostcofan – It is important to note that breostcofan is singular (the dative plural would be breostcofum). In OE the concept that each of many people posesses one example of a particular thing is expressed with the ‘thing’ in the singular.
earmcearig – Unlike other -cearig compounds (modcearig (2), wintercearig (24)), this example consists of two adjectives. It could mean ‘miserable and sad’, or ‘wretched with care’.
eðle bidæled – Expressions of deprivation are common in OE verse descriptions of exile: Grendel is
dreame bedæled; Adam is
duguðum bedæled; Satan is
goda bedæled; King Edward is
lande bereafod; and so on. See Greenfield, pp. 202-3.
Stanley B. Greenfield, ‘The Formulaic Expression of the Theme of ‘Exile’ in Anglo-Saxon Poetry’, Speculum 30 (1955), pp. 200-06.
minne – The manuscript reading is mine. Min here declines as a strong adjective, so mine is accusative plural, implying the wanderer buried many lords. Editors have emended to accusative singular minne, since the wanderer recalls kneeling to a single lord.
wintercearig – Winter can be interpreted either in the sense ‘year’, so that the compound means ‘sad with old age’; or in its literal sense, so that the compound means ‘desolate as winter’.
waþema gebind – Gebind is a noun derived from bindan, ‘to bind’. It may allude to the tempestuousness of the sea, the movement of the tides, or the freezing of the waves. Bindan (line 102) also might mean ‘freeze’.
min mine wisse – Mitchell and Robinson print the manuscript reading ‘mine wise’ and translate ‘might know of my own [people]’. However, if this were the sense, one might expect the verb
cunne, ‘might be acquainted with my own people’, a more desirable characteristic for a replacement lord. Klaeber emends to
min mine wisse, ‘might feel favour towards me’, p. 254.
F. Klaeber, ‘Textual Notes on the Beowulf’, JEGP 8:2 (Apr. 1909), 254-59.
weman – The manuscript reads
weman. Klinck prints this and translates ‘entice’; other editors emend to
wenian. Throughout the Exeter Book, the scribe often confused
ni with
m:
þrea medlumfor
þreaniedlum (
Guthlac, 696),
þrea med lic for
þreaniedlic (
Juliana, 128) and
med þio wa for
niedþiowa (
Christ, 361).
Anne L. Klinck, The Old English Elegies: A Critical Edition and Genre Study. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s UP, 1992.
warað hine wæclast – Mitchell and Robinson translate ‘the path of an exile claims him’. The object of warian ishine, and its subjects are wræclast(32), wunden gold (32), ferþloca freorig (33) and foldan blæd (33). It is awkward to find a translation of the verb that does justice to all four subjects; Dunning and Bliss suggest ‘occupy (to the exclusion of everything else)’.
selesecgas – Leslie suggests that the similar compounds
seldguma and
seleþegn refer in
Beowulf to ‘retainers of a rather lowly status’.
The Wanderer, ed. by Roy F. Leslie (Exeter: University of Exeter Press).
wat – Witan cannot be used absolutely, but it has no obvious object. Mitchell and Robinson take the long sentence of 39-44 as the direct object of wat. An alternative is to begin a new sentence with ðonne sorg ond slæp somod, and take the direct object of wat as hu sliþen bið (30).
þonne . . . oft – Probably means ‘whenever’; compare Beowulf, (2867), þonne he on ealubence oft gesealde / healsittendum helm ond byrnan (‘whenever he gave helmet and mail-coat to those sitting on ale-benches in the hall’).
slæp – Sorrow and sleep are often associated in OE verse: in the Phoenix, they are also connected with the grievous sickbed (swar leger). A line in Solomon and Saturn (331) offers some explanation, stating that sorg bið swarost byrðen, slæp bið deaðe gelicost (‘sorrow is the sorest burden, sleep the most like death’). Judgement Day II calls sleep ‘humiliating’ (heanlic) because it suspends the activities of the mind.
þinceð him on mode – Is the wanderer perhaps day-dreaming here (on mode)?
mondryhten – We might wonder what kind of ceremony involving the wanderer’s mondryhten is being described in these lines. Hwilum (43) implies that the ceremony occurred more than once; it is unlikely therefore to be an investiture. More plausibly, the lines describe a lord distributing treasure to his retainers and receiving in return for his generosity a ceremonial demonstration of loyalty and affection. This seems to be the ceremony described in Maxims I, 67-8: Hond sceal heafod inwyrcan, hord in streonum bidan, / gifstol gegierwed stondan, hwonne hine guman gedælan (‘the head must control the hand; treasure must wait in its hoards, and the throne stand ready, for when men may share it out’).
giefstolas – The direct object of
brucan is normally expressed in the genitive case; the ending
-as is best explained as a weakened form of the genitive singular
-es, a phenomenon occasionally recorded in late West–Saxon manuscripts (see Campbell (1959), §379). Mitchell and Robinson translate the phrase ‘giefstolas breac’ as ‘making use of the throne’, though
brucan also carries the meaning of ‘benefit’, and it probably refers to receiving gifts or favour from the one who sits on the throne.
A. Campbell, Old English Grammar (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959).
wegas – The metre demands that the e in wegas be long; it therefore means ‘waves’ rather than ‘ways’, and is an Anglian spelling.
Swimmað eft on weg – This apparently applies to the brimfuglas who replace the secga geseldan for the wanderer. In the Seafarer (19-20), the speaker describes birdsong as his entertainment (gomene).
fleotendra ferð – Another awkward expression in this difficult passage: it is hard to see how a ferð can bring anything.
hwan – An unusual spelling. /ã/ (the phoneme a nasalized by a following m or n) is generally spelt <o> in The Wanderer; a second exception is wanhydig (67).
gesweorce – Whether the wanderer’s mind ‘does not grow dark’ or ‘cannot grow dark’ is not clear. Certainly the metaphor suggests a very serious state of mind; as Leslie and Mitchell and Robinson point out, ‘despair’ is probably indicated.
flet ofgeafon – Periphrasis for ‘they died’. Flet literally means ‘floor’; by synecdoche, it indicates the whole mead-hall.
dreoseð ond fealleþ – A Christian commonplace which alludes to the inevitable approach of doomsday. Compare Columbanus’s famous poem De vanitate et miseria vitae mortalis, which begins ‘this world will pass way’ (mundus iste transit), and Blickling Homily V, which announces that the earth daily falls and hastens to its end (þes middangeard daga gehwylce fealleþ and to ende efsteþ).
ne mæg weorþan wis – A common sentiment, also expressed in the Maxims where one must experience much (feala gebideð) before one becomes the wisest of the ancients (gamol snoterost). The scribe wrote wearþan; Mitchell and Robinson, with several other editors, emend to weorþan. The manuscript spelling may be a scribal error, or may indicate that the poem was originally written in the Northumbrian dialect, in which the diphthongs /ea/ and /eo/ are often conflated. See Campbell (1959), §278.
wintra dæl in woruldrice – The half-line contains three stressed syllables rather than the usual two. Such lines are called ‘hypermetric’ and are frequently used in passages that convey gnomic wisdom or conclude a poem.
Wita sceal geþyldig – Leslie comments that ‘after discussing the prerequisite for gaining wisdom, the wanderer enumerates the elements of which it consists’. Mitchell suggests this is an example of meiosis; the qualities described are not objectionable only when held in excess but are intrinsically undesirable. Or is it moderation that is being encouraged? The rhetorical structure of the passage may be homiletic in origin; Wulfstan, for instance, lists qualities Ne beon ge and qualities which ne ænig man, ‘no man at all’ should be. In each instance here, beon or wesan should be understood after sceal.
fægen – Mitchell and Robinson take fægen in its usual sense of ‘rejoicing’.
hreþra – Since hreþra gehygd appears to refer to the wita, why is hreþra plural? This seems to be the OE idiom; compare Beowulf 2045: þurh hreþra gehygd, where the subject is an eald æscwiga.
hryðge –
Hapax Legomenon. Like
hrið (102), this word may derive from Old Norse
hríð, ‘storm’, or
hryðja ‘tempest’, as Gordon suggests.
Ida L. Gordan, ‘Traditional Themes in The Wanderer and The Seafarer’, Review of English Studies 5 (1954) 1-13.
Woriað – Mitchell and Robinson print the manuscript reading woriað and gloss ‘decay, moulder’. This is misleading; worian usually means ‘wander’. Translations like ‘totter’ and ‘crumble’ are proposed on the strength of this passage and cannot be substantiated elsewhere in the OE corpus. Dunning and Bliss emend to woniað and translate ‘crumble away’. Mitchell and Robinson appear to want the best of both worlds.
dreame bidrorene – A common motif in OE elegaic poetry: compare dreame bidrorene (Guthlac, 626) dreamum bidrorene (Guthlac 901) and dreame bidæled (Beowulf, 1275).
sume . . . sumne . . . sumne . . . sumne – The different fates of the individual members of the duguþ are described. Sume (80) is accusative plural and refers to all those who died; sumne is accusative singular and in each case refers to a particular warrior.
deaðe gedælde – The scene described differs from regular beasts-of-battle type scenes. Usually the appearance of the wolf and raven announces that battle is coming; in this case they feast in the aftermath. Dunning and Bliss point out that this phrase usually means ‘hand over to death’ and suggest that here it indicates a wolf tearing a prone warrior to pieces. The messenger in Beowulf imagines a raven telling an eagle how he feasted when ‘with the wolf he plundered the slain’ (wið wulf wæl reafode).
eardgeard – The noun might mean ‘city’; it is used of Jerusalem in Christ.
eald enta geweorc – eald enta geweorc appear in The Ruin (2), and elsewhere in Old English poetry. Mitchell and Robinson suggest ‘the Anglo–Saxons used this expression to refer to the impressive stone buildings left by the Romans’. It would be better to say that it refers to any object (particularly a building) belonging to a previous civilisation. The lack of inflection on eald is unusual. Eald describes geworc, which is a neuter noun. We would therefore expect eald to terminate with a neuter plural nominative ending, either -u, -o or -e.
Hwær cwom mearg?... – Described by Mitchell and Robinson as a ‘haunting lament on the transience of earthly things’, this passage is perhaps derived from ubi sunt passages in Latin homilies. Hwær cwom is probably the equivalent English idiom; in one psalter, ubi est Deum eorum? is glossed hwær com eower halig God? Compare Vercelli Homily X: Hwær coman middangeardes gestreon? Hwær com worulde wela? Hwær cwom foldan fægernes? Conformity to rhetorical balance explains why the plural gesetu is the subject of a singular verb: cwom.
Eala beorht bune!... – Eala is vocative: ‘O!’. A similar rhetorical passage is found in Christ and Satan: Eala drihtenes þrym! Eala duguða helm! / Eala meotodes miht! Eala middaneard! / Eala dæg leohta! Eala dream godes! / Eala engla þreat! Eala upheofen!
wyrmlicum fah – A very opaque phrase: Mitchell and Robinson translate ‘decorated with serpentine patterns’. It is likely to signal some sort of design, carved in relief on the (stone) walls of the hall. Leslie notes that serpents and serpentine sea-beasts were a popular decorative motif in Roman stone friezes. For discussion, see Millns (1977).
Tony Millns, ‘The Wanderer 98: weal wundrum heah wyrmlicum fah’, Review of English Studies 28 (1977) 431-438.
fornoman – -an for expected preterite plural on is a feature thought to be typical of Kentish and Northumbrian.
hryðge – Hapax Legomenon. Like hryðge (77), this word probably derives from Old Norse hríð, ‘(snow)storm’. This might affect our dating and localising of the poem.
won – Dunning and Bliss argue this must mean ‘the dark one’, since an adjective does not normally stand for an abstract noun in OE. It is picked up by nihtscua in the next line.
eall – Eall could be nominative and eorþan rice dative, meaning ‘all in the kingdom of earth’; or rice could be nominative and eall either an adverb (‘entirely’) or an adjective describing rice (‘the whole kingdom’).
wyrda gesceaft – Probably means ‘set’ or ‘ordered’ course of events. Onwendeð implies a change for the worse.
her bið feoh læne ... – Another rhetorical set-piece. An analogue has been adduced from an Old Norse collection of precepts in the poem Hávamál: Deyr fé, deyja frændr, / deyr sjálfr it sama, ‘Wealth passes, kinsmen die, the self must also die’ (St. 76). However, as Leslie points out, the lines from The Wanderer differ in their Christian emphasis on the transitoriness of earthly possessions. Klinck suggests that mæg (109b) should be translated ‘woman’ rather than ‘kinsman’ to balance mon (109a).
on mode – Does this mean that the snottor wanderer cwæð . . . on mode or that he is snottor on mode? For a discussion of this point, see Richman (1982).
sundor æt rune – The word rune can refer to mystery or secrets, or to counsel, or simply to runic writing. It is likely that in this instance it refers to private counsel, though the solitary reflection imagined here may also be tied up with reading runic writing. Leslie notes, ‘that the wanderer is communing with himself is indicated by the reflexive him; that his reflections are inward is suggested by on mode, and that his meditations are private is indicated by sundor’.
wel bið þam þe him are seceð ... – Compare Beowulf lines 186-188: wel bið þæm þe mot / æfter deaðdæge Drihten secean / ond to Fæder fæþmum freoðo wilnian (‘it will be well for him who after his death seeks the Lord and asks for peace in the embrace of the Father’).